Chapter 5 Formulating the research design

Learning outcomes By the end of this chapter you should be able to: • understand the importance of having thought carefully about your research design; • identify the main research strategies and explain why these should not be thought of as mutually exclusive; • explain the differences between quantitative and qualitative data

Learning outcomes collection techniques and analysis procedures; • explain the reasons for adopting multiple methods in the conduct of research; • consider the implications of adopting different time horizons for your research design; • explain the concepts of validity and reliability and identify the main threats to validity and reliability; • understand some of the main ethical issues implied by the choice of research strategy.

Understanding your research philosophy Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge’

Differing approaches to research Research philosophy: Positivism: The stance of the natural scientist Interpretivism: The role of the interpretivist to seek to understand the subjective reality of those that they study in order to make sense of and understand their motives, actions and intentions. Realism: Based on the belief that a reality exists. It is independent of human thoughts and beliefs.

The Process of Research Design Research choices Research strategies Time horizons

The Process of Research Design Your research question will subsequently inform your choice of research strategy, your choices of collection techniques and analysis procedures, and the time horizon over which you undertake your research project.

Research strategies Robson (2002) defined research strategy as the general approach taken in an enquiry and added that research strategies have been classified in different ways. While Saunders et al (2007) defined it as a general plan of how you will go about answering the research questions you have set.

Research Design and Tactics The research onion Saunders et al, (2009) Figure 5.1 The research ‘onion’

Research design Your research design will be the general plan of how you will go about answering your research question(s)

The research design needs Clear objectives derived from the research question To specify sources of data collection To consider constraints and ethical issues Valid reasons for your choice of design

Classification of the research purpose Exploratory research is a valuable means of finding out ‘what is happening to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new light’. It is particularly useful if you wish to clarify your understanding of a problem, such as if you are unsure of precise nature of the problem . It may well be that time is well spent on exploratory research, as it may show that the research is not worth pursuing!

Explanatory There are three principal ways of conducting explanatory research: A search of the literature; Interviewing ‘experts’ in the subject; Conducting focus group interviews.

Descriptive studies The object of descriptive research is ‘ to ‘portray an accurate profile of persons, events or situations’. This may be an extension of, or a forerunner to a piece of exploratory research or, more often, a piece of explanatory research. It is necessary to have a clear picture of the phenomena on which you wish to collect data prior to collection of data.

Explanatory research Studies that establish causal relationships between variables may be termed explanatory research. The emphasis her is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the relationship between variables. For example, that a cursory analysis of quantitative data on manufacturing scrap rates shows a relationship between scrap rates and the age of machine being operated

Experiment Action research Research Strategies Experiment Action research Grounded theory Survey Ethnography Case study Archival research

Experiment Experiment: measuring the effects of manipulating one variable on another variable

An experiment will involve Research Strategies An experiment will involve Definition of a theoretical hypothesis Selection of samples from know populations Random allocation of samples Introduction of planned intervention Measurement on a small number of dependent variables Control of all other variables

Survey Survey: collection of information in standardized form groups of people

Research Strategies Survey: key features Popular in business research Perceived as authoritative Allows collection of quantitative data Data can be analysed quantitatively Samples need to be representative Gives the researcher independence Structured observation and interviews can be used

Case Study Case study: development of detailed, intensive knowledge about a single ‘case’, or of a small number of related ‘cases’.

Case Study: key features Research Strategies Case Study: key features Provides a rich understanding of a real life context Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data A case study can be categorised in four ways and based on two dimensions: single case v. multiple case holistic case v. embedded case Yin (2003)

Single case A single case is often used where it represents a critical case or, alternatively, an extreme or unique case. Conversely, a single case may be selected because it is typical or because it provides you with an opportunity to observe and analyze a phenomenon that few have considered before. Inevitably, an important aspect of using a single case is defining the actual case. For many part-time students this is the organization for which they work

multiple case A case study strategy can also incorporate multiple cases, that is, more than one case. The rationale for using multiple cases focuses upon the need to establish whether the findings of the first case occur in other cases and, as a consequence, the need to generalize from these findings. For this reason Yin (2003) argues that multiple case studies may be preferable to a single case study and that, where you choose to use a single case study, you will need to have a strong justification for this choice.

holistic case refers to the unit of analysis. For example, you may well have chosen to use an organization by which you have been employed or are currently employed as your case. If your research is concerned only with the organization as a whole then you are treating the organization as a holistic case study.

embedded case even though you are researching and are concerned with a single organization as a whole, if you wish to examine also a number of logical sub-units within the organization, perhaps departments or work groups, then your case will inevitably involve more than one unit of analysis. Whatever way you select these units, this would be called an embedded case study

Action research Action research: the term has been used first by Lewin in 1946. It has been understood by management researchers in a variety of ways. But there are three common ideas within the literature. The first focuses on and emphasizes the purpose of the research: the management of change.

Action research The second relates to the involvement of the practitioner in the research and in particular a close cooperation between practitioners and researchers. The final theme is that action research should have implications beyond the immediate project. In other words it must be clear that the results could inform other context.

Action research: key features Research Strategies Action research: key features Research IN action - not ON action Involves practitioners in the research The researcher becomes part of the organisation Promotes change within the organisation Can have two distinct foci (Schein, 1999) – the aim of the research and the needs of the sponsor

Grounded theory Grounded theory: Collection of data starts without the formation of an initial theoretical framework. Theory is created from data made by a series of observations.

Grounded theory: key features Research Strategies Grounded theory: key features Theory is built through induction and deduction Helps to predict and explain behaviour Develops theory from data generated by observations Is an interpretative process, not a logico-deductive one Based on Suddaby (2006)

Ethnography Ethnography: Derives from the field of anthropology. The idea is to interpret the social world the research subject inhabits and the way in which they interpret it.

Ethnography: key features Research Strategies Ethnography: key features Aims to describe and explain the social world inhabited by the researcher Takes place over an extended time period Is naturalistic

Naturalism It means that in adopting an ethnographic strategy, you will be researching the phenomenon within the context in which it occurs and, in addition, not using data collection techniques that oversimplify the complexities of everyday life. Given this, it is not surprising that most ethnographic strategies involve extended participant observation. However, you need to be mindful that the term naturalism also has a contradictory meaning that is often associated with positivism. Within this context it refers to the use of the principles of scientific method and the use of a scientific model within research.

Archival research: key features Research Strategies Archival research: key features Uses administrative records and documents as the principal sources of data Allows research questions focused on the past Is constrained by the nature of the records and documents

The role of the practitioner-researcher Research Strategies The role of the practitioner-researcher Key features Research access is more easily available The researcher knows the organisation Has the disadvantage of familiarity The researcher is likely to their own assumptions and preconceptions The dual role requires careful negotiation

Quantitative and Qualitative The terms quantitative and qualitative are used widely in business and management research to differentiate both data collection techniques and data analysis procedures. One way of distinguishing between the two is the focus on numeric (numbers) or non-numeric(words) data. Quantitative is predominantly used as a synonym for any data collection technique (such as questionnaire) or data analysis procedure (such as graphs or statistics) that generates or uses numerical data.

Quantitative and Qualitative qualitative is used predominantly as a synonym for any data collection technique (such as an interview) or data analysis procedure (such as categorizing data) that generates or use non-numerical data. Qualitative therefore can refer to data other than words, such as pictures and video clips.

Research multiple methods In choosing your research methods you will therefore either use a single data collection technique and corresponding analysis procedures (mono method) or use more than one data collection technique and analysis procedures to answer your research question (multiple methods).

Research multiple methods This choice is increasingly advocated within business and management research, where a single research study may use quantitative and qualitative techniques and procedures in combination as well as use primary and secondary data. If you choose to use a mono method you will combine either a single quantitative data collection technique, such as questionnaires, with quantitative data analysis procedures

Research multiple methods or a single qualitative data collection technique, such as in-depth interviews, with qualitative data analysis procedures. In contrast, if you choose to combine data collection techniques and procedures using some form of multiple methods design, there are four different possibilities.

Research multiple methods The term multi-method refers to those combinations where more than one data collection technique is used with associated analysis techniques, but this is restricted within either a quantitative or qualitative world view

Research multiple methods Thus you might choose to collect quantitative data using, for example, both questionnaires and structured observation analyzing these data using statistical (quantitative) procedures, a multi-method quantitative study. Alternatively, you might choose to collect qualitative data using, for example, in-depth interviews and diary accounts and analyze these data using non-numerical (qualitative) procedures, a multi-method qualitative study. Therefore, if you adopted multi-methods you would not mix quantitative and qualitative techniques and procedures.

Research multiple methods Mixed methods approach is the general term for when both quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures are used in a research design. It is subdivided into two types. Mixed method research uses quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures either at the same time (parallel) or one after the other (sequential) but does not combine them. This means that, although mixed method research uses both quantitative and qualitative world views at the research methods stage quantitative data are analyzed quantitatively

Research multiple methods and qualitative data are analyzed qualitatively. In addition, often either quantitative or qualitative techniques and procedures predominate. In contrast, mixed-model research combines quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures as well as combining quantitative and qualitative approaches at other phases of the research such as research question generation.

Research multiple methods This means that you may take quantitative data and qualitise it, that is, convert it into narrative that can be analysed qualitatively.Alternatively, you may quantitise your qualitative data, converting it into to numerical codes so that it can be analysed statistically.

Multiple research methods Research choices Saunders et al, (2009) Figure 5.4 Research choices

Multiple research methods Reasons for using mixed method designs: (Table 5.1 ) Triangulation Facilitation Complementarity Generality Aid interpretation Study different aspects Solving a puzzle Source: developed from Bryman (2006)

Triangulation Use of two or more independent sources of data or data collection methods to corroborate research findings within a study.

Facilitation Use of one data collection method or research strategy to aid research using another data collection method or research strategy within a study (e.g. qualitative/quantitative providing hypotheses, aiding measurement quantitative/qualitative participant or case selection)

Complementarity Use of two or more research strategies in order that different aspects of an investigation can be dovetailed (e.g. qualitative plus quantitative questionnaire to fil in gaps quantitative plus qualitative questionnaire for issues, interview for meaning)

Generality Use of independent source of data to contextualize main study or use quantitative analysis to provide sense of relative importance (e.g. qualitative plus quantitative to set case in broader context; qualitative × quantitative analysis is to provide sense of relative importance)

Aid interpretation Use of qualitative data to help explain relationships between quantitative variables (e.g quantitative/qualitative)

Study different aspects Quantitative to look at macro aspects and qualitative to look at micro aspects

Solving a puzzle Use of an alternative data collection method when the initial method reveals unexplainable results or insufficient data

Select the appropriate time horizon Time Horizons Select the appropriate time horizon Cross-sectional studies: cross-sectional studies are the study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular time. Longitudinal studies: usually study the change and development over a period of time.

Credibility of research findings Important considerations Reliability Validity Generalisability Logic leaps and false assumptions

credibility of research findings ‘how do I know?’ test: ‘. . . will the evidence and my conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny?’ How do you know that the advertising campaign for a new product has resulted in enhanced sales? How do you know that manual employees in an electronics factory have more negative feelings towards their employer than their clerical counterparts? The answer, of course, is that, in the literal sense of the question, you cannot know. All you can do is reduce the possibility of getting the answer wrong. This is why good research design is important.

Reliability Reliability refers to the extent to which your data collection techniques or analysis procedures will yield consistent findings. It can be assessed by posing the following three questions: 1 Will the measures yield the same results on other occasions? 2 Will similar observations be reached by other observers? 3 Is there transparency in how sense was made from the raw data?

Validity Validity is concerned with whether the findings are really about what they appear to be about. Is the relationship between two variables a causal relationship? For example, in a study of an electronics factory we found that employees’ failure to look at new product displays was caused not by employee apathy but by lack of opportunity (the displays were located in a part of the factory that employees rarely visited). This potential lack of validity in the conclusions was minimized by research design that built in the opportunity for focus groups after the questionnaire results had been analyzed.

Research design ethics Remember ‘The research design should not subject the research population to embarrassment, harm or other material disadvantage’ Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

Research projects can be categorised as Research projects may be Summary: Chapter 5 Research design turns a research question and objectives into a project that considers Strategies Choices Time horizons Research projects can be categorised as Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory Research projects may be Cross-sectional Longitudinal

Important considerations Summary: Chapter 5 Important considerations The main research strategies may combined in the same project The opportunities provided by using multiple methods The validity and reliability of results Access and ethical considerations