Gender and Sexuality Chapter 4

Gender Development Gender Development How are We Alike? How Do We Differ?

Gender Development Based on genetic makeup, males and females are alike, since the majority of our inherited genes (45 chromosomes are unisex) are similar. Males and females differ biologically in body fat, muscle, height, onset of puberty, and life expectancy. Preview Question 1: What are some of the similarities and differences between men and women?

Gender Differences in Aggression Men express themselves and behave in more aggressive ways than do women. This aggression gender gap appears in many cultures and at various ages. In males, the nature of this aggression is physical.

Who is more aggressive, men or women? Are there differences in how men and women display aggression?

Gender and Social Power In most societies, men are socially dominant and are perceived as such. In 2005, men accounted for 84% of the governing parliaments.

Gender Differences and Connectedness Young and old, women form more connections (friendships) with people than do men. Men emphasize freedom and self-reliance. Oliver Eltinger/ Zefa/ Corbis Dex Image/ Getty Images

What are some ways in which women bond with each other? What are some ways in which men bond? Do you think this creates problems in relationships?

Biology of Sex Biological sex is determined by the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. If the pair is XX, a female is produced. If the pair is XY, a male child is produced.

Sexual Differentiation In the mother’s womb, the male fetus is exposed to testosterone (because of the Y chromosome), which leads to the development of male genitalia. If low levels of testosterone are released in the uterus, the result is a female. Preview Question 2: How do nature and nurture interact to define us as male or female?

Sexual Differentiation Sexual differentiation is not only biological, but also psychological and social. However, genes and hormones play a very important role in defining gender, especially in altering the brain and influencing gender differences as a result.

What are some ways your culture expects men and women to behave? Gender Roles Our culture shapes our gender roles — expectations of how men and women are supposed to behave. What are some ways your culture expects men and women to behave? Gender Identity — means how a person views himself or herself in terms of gender.

Gender Roles: Theories Social Learning Theory proposes that we learn gender behavior like any other behavior—reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Gender Schema Theory suggests that we learn a cultural “recipe” of how to be a male or a female, which influences our gender- based perceptions and behaviors.

Physiological Response The Physiology of Sex Masters and Johnson (1966) describe the human sexual response cycle as consisting of four phases: Phase Physiological Response Excitement Genitals become engorged with blood. Vagina expands secretes lubricant. Penis enlarges. Plateau Excitement peaks such as breathing, pulse and blood pressure. Orgasm Contractions all over the body. Increase in breathing, pulse & blood pressure. Sexual release. Resolution Engorged genital release blood. Male goes through refractory phase. Women resolve slower. Preview Question 3: What are the stages of the human sexual response cycle?

Hormones and Sexual Behavior Sex hormones effect the development of sexual characteristics and (especially in animals) activate sexual behavior. Male Testes Testosterone (Small amounts of estrogen) Female Ovaries Adrenals Estrogen (Small amounts of testosterone) Preview Question 4: How do sex hormones influence human sexual development and arousal?

Estrogen Female animals “in heat” express peak levels of estrogen. Female receptivity may be heightened with estrogen injections. Sex hormones may have milder affects on humans than on animals. Women are more likely to have sex when close to ovulation (increased testosterone), and men show increased testosterone levels when socializing with women.

Testosterone Levels of testosterone remain relatively constant in males, so it is difficult to manipulate and activate sexual behavior. Castration, which reduces testosterone levels, lowers sexual interest.

Sexual Problems Men generally suffer from two kinds of sexual problems: premature ejaculation and erectile disorder. Women may suffer from orgasmic disorders. Preview Question 5: What are sexual disorders? These problems are not due to personality disorders and can be treated through behavior therapy and drugs such as Viagra.

The Psychology of Sex Hunger responds to a need. If we do not eat, we die. In that sense, sex is not a need because if we do not have sex, we do not die. Preview Question 8: How do external and imagined stimuli contribute to sexual arousal?

External Stimuli It is common knowledge that men become sexually aroused when browsing through erotic material. However, women experience similar heightened arousal under controlled conditions.

Imagined Stimuli Our imagination in our brain can influence sexual arousal and desire. People with spinal cord injuries and no genital sensation can still feel sexual desire. Sotographs/The Gamma-Liaison Network/ Getty Images

Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same sex, the other sex, and/or either sex. Preview Question 9: What does current research tell us about why some people are attracted to members of their own sex and others are attracted to members of the other sex? Homosexual Heterosexual Bisexual

Do you believe individuals are born with a particular orientation or is it a result of the environment?

Sexual Orientation Statistics In Europe and America, based on many national surveys, homosexuality in men is 3-4% and in women is 1-2%. As members of a minority, homosexuals often struggle with their sexual orientation.

Homosexuality & Bisexuality 20% to 25% of males and 15% of females have had at least one gay or lesbian experience during adulthood 5% to 10% of women and men are exclusively gay What determines a person’s sexual orientation? Genes (twin studies) Hormones Environment (child rearing, experiences, etc)

Origins of Sexual Orientation Homosexuality is more likely based on biological factors like differing brain centers, genetics, and parental hormone exposure rather than environmental factors. Cynthia Johnson/ Time magazine Homosexual parents

Animal Homosexuality A number of animal species are devoted to same-sex partners, suggesting that homosexuality exists in the animal world. David Hecker/ AFP/ Getty Images Wendell and Cass

Genes & Sexual Orientation A number of reasons suggest that homosexuality may be due to genetic factors. Family: Homosexuality seems to run in families. Twin studies: Homosexuality is more common in identical twins than fraternal twins. However, there are mixed results. Fruit flies: Genetic engineers can genetically manipulate females to act like males during courtship and males to act like females.

Question (summarized) Human Sexuality Gender Differences in Sexuality Males and females, to a large extent, behave and think similarly. Differences in sexes arise in regards to reproductive behaviors. Question (summarized) Male Female Casual sex 58% 34% Sex for affection 25% 48% Think about sex everyday 54% 19% Preview Question 10: How do evolutionary psychologists use natural selection to explain human sexuality?

Evolutionary Perspective Natural Selection & Mating Preferences Natural selection has caused males to send their genes into the future by mating with multiple females since males have lower costs involved. However, females select one mature and caring male because of the higher costs involved with pregnancy and nursing.

Evolutionary Perspective Mating Preferences Males look for youthful appearing females in order to pass their genes into the future. Females, on the other hand, look for maturity, dominance, affluence, and boldness in males. Data based on 37 cultures.

Critiquing the Evolutionary Perspective Evolutionary psychologists take a behavior and work backward to explain it in terms of natural selection. Evolutionary psychology proposes genetic determinism and undercuts morality in establishing society. Where genders are unequal, gender preferences are wide, but when they are closely equal, preferences narrow down.

Sex and Human Values Premarital Sex: 1960’s majority of people believed it was wrong Incidences of premarital sex have risen Double standard Andreanna Seymore/ Getty Images

What are your thoughts on premarital sex What are your thoughts on premarital sex? Do you believe that there is a double standard?

Marital Sex Many couples worry about whether they are having to little sex Sexual intercourse declines with time Early research found that extramarital sex was common. However, new research shows that 85% of married women and 75% of married men are faithful