More parental investment (Focus on psychological mechanisms)   The parental care motivational system. Evolved mechanisms and their implications. Specific psychological consequences of parental mindsets. Aggression. Prejudice. Risk-aversion. Moral judgment. Conservative sociopolitical attitudes.

“Given the supreme importance of offspring as genetic vehicles…it is reasonable to expect that natural selection would favor powerful mechanisms in parents to ensure the survival and reproductive success of their children.” David Buss

“Given the supreme importance of offspring as genetic vehicles…it is reasonable to expect that natural selection would favor powerful mechanisms in parents to ensure the survival and reproductive success of their children.” Affective / cognitive responses that facilitate protection and nurturance Appraisal as thing requiring parental care Behaviors that provide protection and nurturance Relevant perceptual stimulus For example: - Tenderness. - Affection. - Desire to spend time with. - Sense of responsibility. - Inclination to protect. - Etc.

(Implies overgeneralization of parental response) Reality Respond as if… My child Not my child “My child” Correct Error (“False alarm”) “Not my child” (“Miss”) Cognitive bias (Implies overgeneralization of parental response) Small fitness costs Big fitness costs

“Given the supreme importance of offspring as genetic vehicles…it is reasonable to expect that natural selection would favor powerful mechanisms in parents to ensure the survival and reproductive success of their children.” Affective / cognitive responses that facilitate protection and nurturance Appraisal as thing requiring parental care Behaviors that provide protection and nurturance Relevant perceptual stimulus For example: - Tenderness. - Affection. - Desire to spend time with. - Sense of responsibility. - Inclination to protect. - Etc. These mechanisms may influence responses to lots of child-like things!

“Given the supreme importance of offspring as genetic vehicles…it is reasonable to expect that natural selection would favor powerful mechanisms in parents to ensure the survival and reproductive success of their children.” These mechanisms exist in all normally-developing human beings! (But people do differ) Affective / cognitive responses that facilitate protection and nurturance Appraisal as thing requiring parental care Behaviors that provide protection and nurturance Relevant perceptual stimulus For example: - Tenderness. - Affection. - Desire to spend time with. - Sense of responsibility. - Inclination to protect. - Etc. These mechanisms may influence responses to lots of child-like things!

“Given the supreme importance of offspring as genetic vehicles…it is reasonable to expect that natural selection would favor powerful mechanisms in parents to ensure the survival and reproductive success of their children.” These mechanisms exist in all normally-developing human beings! (But people do differ) These mechanisms may produce weaker or stronger responses depending on contexts that either inhibit or promote a “parental” mindset. Affective / cognitive responses that facilitate protection and nurturance Appraisal as thing requiring parental care Behaviors that provide protection and nurturance Relevant perceptual stimulus For example: - Tenderness. - Affection. - Desire to spend time with. - Sense of responsibility. - Inclination to protect. - Etc. These mechanisms may influence responses to lots of child-like things!

Example of flexibility in “parental” affective responses. Background: Mating / parenting trade-off. Implication: Arousal of short-term mating motives is associated with a weaker tenderness response to infants.

Parental mindsets and aggressive behavior. Background: Lactation is associated with neurochemical processes that promote maternal behavior. In many mammals, lactation is associated with increased aggression. Research comparing breastfeeding moms and non-breastfeeding moms: (Hahn-Holbrook et al., 2011) When provoked (by someone who was rude and obnoxious), breastfeeding moms responded more aggressively.

Parental mindsets and prejudice toward threatening groups. Experiments with both parents and non-parents: (Gilead & Liberman, 2014) Manipulations that temporarily created a care-giving mindset. Caused participants to express stronger prejudices against an outgroup. But only when that outgroup was perceived to pose a threat.

Parental mindsets and risk-aversion. Experiments with parents: (Eibach & Mock, 2011) After being reminded that they’re parents, they were more risk-averse. Experiments with non-parents: (Sherman, Haidt, & Coan, 2009) After looking at photos of cute baby animals, they were more cautious and careful in their motor movements.

Parental mindsets and moral judgments. Experiments with parents: (Eibach et al., 2009) After being reminded that they’re parents, they judged norm violations more harshly. Effects of “parental” dispositions (in both parents and non-parents): (Buckels et al., 2015; White & Schaller, 2018) Parents and non-parents with more “parental” dispositions judged norm violations more harshly. But only when judging adults (not when judging young children).

Conservative sociopolitical attitudes Parental mindsets and conservative social attitudes. Effects of parenthood and “parental” dispositions: (Kerry & Murray, 2018) Parents were more conservative than non-parents. People with more “parental” dispositions were more conservative. This helps to explain the relation between age and conservatism. Parenthood and “parental” disposition Conservative sociopolitical attitudes Age