Sociology in Modules

What Is Culture? Culture: totality of learned, socially transmitted customs, knowledge, material objects, and behavior Includes ideas, values, customs, and artifacts of groups of people

What Is Culture? Common culture is shared by people in a society— the largest form of human group Common culture simplifies day-to-day interactions Culture influences human behavior Adorno: culture industry—force that standardizes the goods and services demanded by consumers—limits people’s choices

Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism: tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life represents the norm or is superior to others Our view of the world is dramatically influenced by the society in which we were raised

Cultural Relativism Cultural relativism: people’s behaviors from the perspective of their own culture Different social contexts give rise to different norms and values

Figure 9-1: Countries with High Child Marriage Rates 6

Elements of Culture Role of Language One of the major elements of culture Important component of cultural capital Facilitates day-to-day exchanges Includes both the written and spoken word and nonverbal communication

Language: Written and Spoken Language: abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Language precedes thought Language is not a given Language is culturally determined Language may color how we see the world

Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication: use of gestures, facial expressions, and other visual images to communicate Learned Differs by culture Symbols: gestures, objects, and words that form basis of human communication

Norms and Values All societies have ways to encourage and enforce appropriate behavior, and discourage and punish inappropriate behavior Collective idea of what is good and desirable, and what is not

Norms Norms: established standards of behavior maintained by a society To be significant, must be widely shared and understood Persistent social norm in contemporary society: heterosexuality

Norms Types of Norms Formal norms: generally written; specify strict punishments Law: governmental social control Informal norms: generally understood but not precisely recorded Mores: norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society Folkways: norms governing everyday behavior

Norms Norms and Sanctions Sanctions: penalties and rewards for conduct concerning social norm Positive sanctions: pay raises, medals, words of gratitude Negative sanctions: fines, threats, imprisonment, and stares of contempt

Table 10-1: Norms and Sanctions 14

Norms Acceptance of Norms People do not follow norms in all situations Behavior that appears to violate society’s norms may represent adherence to a particular group’s norms Norms may be violated because they conflict with other norms Acceptance of norms is subject to change Sudden change can upset an entire population

Values Cultural values: collective conceptions of what is good, desirable, and proper— or bad, undesirable, and improper Influence people’s behavior Criteria for evaluating actions of others Values may change, but most remain relatively stable during any one person’s lifetime

Figure 10-1: Life Goals of First-Year College Students in the United States, 1966–2012 17

Figure 10-2: Valuing Ethnicity by Country 18

Sociological Perspectives on Culture Functionalists maintain that social stability requires a consensus and the support of society’s members; strong central values and common norms provide that support Conflict theorists argue that common culture serves to maintain the privileges of certain groups

Sociological Perspectives on Culture Dominant ideology: set of cultural beliefs and practices that help maintain powerful interests Social interests Economic interests Political interests Conflict perspective: dominant ideology has major social significance Growing number of social scientists believe it is not easy to identify a core culture in U.S.

Development of Culture around the World Innovation: process of introducing a new idea or object to a culture Discovery: making known or sharing existence of an aspect of reality Invention: existing cultural items combined into form that did not exist before

Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology Diffusion: process by which cultural item spreads from group to group McDonaldization of society: process through which principles of fast-food industry dominate certain sectors of society Technology: information about how to use material resources of the environment to satisfy human needs and desires (Nolan and Lenski)

Globalization, Diffusion, and Technology Material culture: physical or technological aspects of daily lives Nonmaterial culture: ways of using material objects Culture lag: period of maladjustment when nonmaterial culture struggles to adapt to new material conditions

Cultural Variation Cultures adapt to meet specific circumstances Climate, level of technology, population, geography Groups within a single nation develop cultural patterns that differ from those of the dominant society

Subcultures Subculture: segment of society that shares distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differs from larger society A subculture may develop an argot, a specialized language that distinguishes a subculture from the wider society

Countercultures Counterculture: subculture that conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture Typically thrive among the young Counterterrorism experts concerned about growth of ultraconservative militia groups

Culture Shock Occurs when someone feels disoriented, uncertain, out of place, or fearful when immersed in an unfamiliar culture People tend to take for granted cultural practices of their society

Social Policy and Culture: Bilingualism Looking at the Issue Bilingualism: use of two or more languages in a particular setting Bilingual education may instruct children in their native language while gradually introducing the language of the host society Bilingual programs vary widely in application and quality, so it is difficult to measure their success

Figure 12-1: Percentage of People Who Speak a Language Other than English at Home, by State 29

Social Policy and Culture: Bilingualism Applying Sociology For long time, people in U. S. demanded conformity to a single language Recent decades have seen challenges to pattern of forced obedience to the dominant ideology Attackers of bilingual programs often ignore fact that bilingual education programs may have beneficial results

Sociology in the Global Community 10-1: Symbolizing 9/11 What does the 9/11 memorial symbolize to you? Explain the meaning of the cascading water, the reflecting pools, and the empty footprints. What does the placement of the victims’ names suggest? If you were designing a 9/11 memorial, what symbol or symbols would you incorporate? Use your sociological imagination to predict how various groups would respond to your design.

Sociology on Campus 10-2: A Culture of Cheating? Do you know anyone who has engaged in Internet plagiarism? What about cheating on tests or falsifying laboratory results? If so, how did the person justify these forms of dishonesty? Even if cheaters aren’t caught, what negative effects does their academic dishonesty have on them? What effects does it have on students who are honest? Could an entire college or university suffer from students’ dishonesty?

Sociology in the Global Community 11-1: Life in the Global Village How are you affected by globalization? Which aspects of globalization do you find advantageous and which objectionable? How would you feel if the customs and traditions you grew up with were replaced by the culture or values of another country? How might you try to protect your culture?