Quick Quiz Identify and describe the types of guidance, giving a sporting example of each. Identify and describe the types of feedback, giving a sporting example of each. Select the most appropriate type of guidance/s for the following situations, justifying your choice: - a 15 year old trampolinist learning to perform a somersault for the first time. - a non-swimmer learning to swim - a county level netball team developing their defending skills

Psychological factors affecting performance 7 Psychological factors affecting performance Skill acquisition Memory Models

Learning Objectives Learning Objective: Understand how we store and process memory Learning Outcomes: All: Describe Aitkinson and Shiffren’s multi-store memory model and Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model Most: Explain the use of memory models in relation to learning and performance Some: Evaluate models for storing and processing memory

Key Terms Memory trace Short term Sensory stores Short term memory Long term memory Encoding Storage Retrieval chunking Selective attention

Key Terms Memory trace – when the brain cells retain or store information Short term Sensory stores – information in the form of stimuli enters the brain from the environment. Short term memory – ‘working memory’ – information is used to decide what needs to be done Long term memory – limitless storage capacity that holds information for long periods of time Encoding – the conversion of information into codes called visual codes, auditory codes and semantic codes. Storage – retention of information over a period of time. Retrieval – recovering the information that has been stored. Chunking – different pieces of information can be grouped together and remembered as one piece of information Selective attention – relevant information is filtered through into short-term memory and irrelevant information is lost or forgotten

Atkinson and Shreiffren’s multi-store memory model ‘68

Memory Short term sensory stores Short term memory Long term memory

Short term sensory stores Information in the form of stimuli enters the brain from the environment. Each store has a large capacity, but information is stored for only between a quarter and one second before it is filtered. This filtering takes place in the stimulus identification stage Selective attention takes place in the short term sensory stores This process is particularly important in sport, where quick reactions depend on being able to concentrate on important information and shut out distractions.

Short term memory Where information is used to decide what needs to be done. Only a limited amount of information can be stored in the STM (about 7 pieces) and it is held for only a brief time (about 30 seconds) To extend this time, the performer would have to rehearse the information through imagery or sub-verbal repetition (talking to yourself) or through chunking. If information is considered important enough and is rehearsed, it can be passed into the long term memory through a process called encoding. If information is not considered important or is not rehearsed it will be forgotten.

Long term memory Limitless and holds information for long periods of time. Stored information has been encoded, by associating it with other information or meaning. Meaningless items are not usually stored for long periods of time. Motor programmes are stored in the LTM because they have been rehearsed many times. The process of continued rehearsal leads to a skill being almost automatic, and often referred to as ‘overlearning’

Selective attention Selective attention task Memory task Selective attention – is the process where relevant information is filtered through into short-term memory and irrelevant information is lost or forgotten. In sport we have a lot of information to sort through from the weather, to opposition, crowds, coaches, team mates, what is happening in the game. We cannot attend to all of the information, so have to choose what is important, and ignore the rest so we don’t become over-aroused. Selective attention task Memory task

Multi-store memory model Advantages Simplifies the memory process to aid understanding Explains how those with brain damage may have dysfunctional memory or amnesia, showing a distinction between short-term and long-term memory Disadvantages Too simplified – does not explain why we remember different types of information. E.g. we might more easily remember a coach’s explanation of sports technique rather than a simplified diagram. Does not effectively prove the distinction between shot-term memory and long-term memory and does not effectively explain the interaction between short-term and long-term memory.

Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model ‘72

Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model ‘72 This approach is used to explain how memory works and opposes the view that there are set memory stores shown by the multi-store memory model. It seeks to explain what we do with the information rather than how it is stored. How deeply we consider or process information dictates how long the memory lasts. Information received by the brain will be transferred t the LTM and therefore remembered more if the information Is considered Is understood Has meaning (related to past memories) According to this approach, the meaning of the information is much more relevant than mere repetition.

Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model ‘72 Identifies 3 possible levels related to processing of verbal information Structural level This involves paying attention to what the words look like. It is a shallow level of processing. Phonetic level This involves processing the sounds of words Semantic level This considers the actual meaning of words, which is the deepest level of processing.

Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model ‘72 Within the levels of processing approach to learning movement skills, instructions and demonstrations need to be able to show or elicit meaning from the activity – the more information means something to the performer, the more likely it is that they will remember it.

Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing model ‘72 Advantages Explains well that if we understand some information, we are more likely to remember it – coaches have often stated that they understand their sport more now because they have to explain its skills and strategies and therefore remember more clearly the coaching points to be made to performers. It explains well that the longer we consider and analyse information, the more we remember that information Disadvantages The longer time it takes to process information does not always lead to better recall. So the depth of processing does not always help us to remember. Difficulty in defining what ‘deep’ processing actually involves. In merely describing the brain as processing information ‘deeply’ there is little to define what is meant by ‘deeply’ Does not take into account individual differences. E.g. why do those who show more determination sometimes forget basic skills. Or why is it that those who pay little attention to the coach’s instructions can perform so well and remember the coaching points and strategies that may lead to winning performances?

How do the models relate to learning and performing physical activity skills? To make our memory processes more effective so that we can optimise learning and sports performance, there are a number of ways in which memory can be improved Rehearsal Meaningfulness Association Avoiding overload Organise information Mental imagery

Rehearsal This can be useful for retrieval of information in both the STM an LTM, as shown by the multi-store memory model A tennis player will rehearse her serve physically as well as mentally by practising the throw-up of the ball, the preparation backswing, the strike and follow-through

Meaningfulness The more the information is seen as relevant to our needs, the more likely we are to remember it, as shown in the levels of processing model. E.g. the tennis coach will show that the coaching information being given will raise the player’s performance levels.

Association If new information is linked somehow to old information, it is more likely to be remembered, thus associating it with something already known, especially relevant to the levels of processing approach. E.g. a tennis coach will show the player that new information regarding the serve technique is simply an adaptation of the old serve, so the learning of a whole new skill is not required.

Avoiding overload Any new information must be allowed to ‘sink in’ thus avoiding potential confusion, relating particularly to the multi-store memory model E.g. a tennis coach will only give a few points for the player to remember before the match.

Organise information Chunking can expand the STM store. Complex pieces of information should be grouped to aid understanding, relevant to the multi-store memory model E.g. a trampolininst will remember a complex sequence by mentally putting together the small moves to make bigger ones.

Mental imagery A performer will often remember a visual representation far more than verbal instructions. This is especially relevant to the levels of processing approach E.g. a trampoline caoch demonstrates the move to the performer or shows him a video of the sequence so that he an remember it more effectively.

Exam Questions May 2016 qu 2e (10) May 2012 qu 2c (6)   May 2012 qu 2c (6) The multi-store model is one way of understanding the role of the memory in developing movement skills. Using practical examples, explain each part of the Multi-store model of memory in developing movement skills. Describe strategies that might improve memory storage. Describe each part of the multi-store memory process and give a practical example to show how each part contributes to the performance of physical activities.