ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY

Ecosystem: The organisms in a particular area and the physical environment with which they interact. All the biotic and abiotic factors in a community. (Abiotic factors: energy, water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous)

Microorganisms and other detritivores Secondary consumers Fig. 55-4 Tertiary consumers Microorganisms and other detritivores Secondary consumers Primary consumers Detritus Primary producers Figure 55.4 An overview of energy and nutrient dynamics in an ecosystem Heat Key Chemical cycling Sun Energy flow

Energy Flow through Ecosystems Energy flows through ecosystems as organisms capture and store energy, then transfer it to organisms that eat them. These organisms are grouped into trophic levels...

Trophic Levels: Route of energy flow food web - pyramid of numbers food chain food web - pyramid of numbers

Pyramid of Numbers

Question: “Why are big fierce animals rare?” Charles Elton, 1927

Answer: Because of the way energy flows through communities...

Ecosystem Energy Budgets: Primary Productivity (PP) Secondary Productivity (SP1, SP2)

Primary Productivity (PP) Rate at which energy or biomass is produced per unit area by plants (primary producers) Photosynthesis powers primary productivity. The annual productivity of an area is determined primarily by sunlight, temperature, and moisture.

Distribution of Primary Production Worldwide Figure 56.5 Figure 56.5

Positive Correlation Between Productivity and Sunlight

Positive Correlation Between Productivity and... Temperature Precipitation

Net primary production (g/m2·yr) Fig. 55-8 3,000 Tropical forest · 2,000 Net primary production (g/m2·yr) Temperate forest 1,000 Mountain coniferous forest Figure 55.8 Relationship between net primary production and actual evapotranspiration in six terrestrial ecosystems Desert shrubland Temperate grassland Arctic tundra 500 1,000 1,500 Actual evapotranspiration (mm H2O/yr)

Secondary Productivity (SP1, SP2…) rate of production of new biomass from PP by heterotrophic organisms (primary and secondary consumers) positively correlated with rainfall...

Tertiary consumers 10 J Secondary consumers 100 J Primary 1,000 J Fig. 55-10 Tertiary consumers 10 J Secondary consumers 100 J Primary consumers 1,000 J Figure 55.10 An idealized pyramid of net production Primary producers 10,000 J 1,000,000 J of sunlight

Where does all the energy go???

Plant material eaten by caterpillar 200 J 67 J Cellular respiration Fig. 55-9 Plant material eaten by caterpillar 200 J Figure 55.9 Energy partitioning within a link of the food chain 67 J Cellular respiration 100 J Feces 33 J Growth (new biomass)

Ecological Efficiency: Percent of energy transferred from one trophic level to the next.

Three categories of transfer efficiency are required to predict energy flow from PP to SP1 to SP2... consumption efficiency assimilation efficiency production efficiency

1) consumption efficiency (CE) % of total productivity at one trophic level that is consumed by the next highest level (remainder not eaten)

Green World Hypothesis Figure 55.12 A green ecosystem Plants have many defenses against herbivores

2) assimilation efficiency (AE) % of ingested food energy that is assimilated (i.e. digested), and thus potentially available for growth, reproduction (remainder lost as feces)

Elephant dung

3) production efficiency (PE) % of assimilated energy that is incorporated into new biomass (growth, reproduction) (remainder lost as respiratory heat)

Implications? SP1 is the % of PP that is incorporated at the next highest trophic level. (Ditto for SP2…) This is NEVER 100%. Thus, energy loss at each trophic level limits the length of a food chain...

And that is why big fierce animals are rare!

Biogeochemical Cycles Nutrients exist in pools of chemical elements FOUR main reservoirs where these nutrients exist are: 1) Atmosphere - carbon in carbon dioxide, nitrogen in atmospheric nitrogen 2) Lithosphere - the rocks - phosphates, calcium in calcium carbonate, potassium in feldspar 3) Hydrosphere - the water of oceans, lakes, streams and soil - nitrogen in dissolved nitrate, carbon in carbonic acid 4) Biosphere – all living organisms on Earth contain carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus

Atmosphere Living Organisms + Dead organic matter Lithosphere Hydrosphere

4) Living Organisms and Nutrient Cycles Living organisms are a reservoir in which carbon exists in carbohydrates (mainly cellulose) and fats, nitrogen in protein, and phosphorus in ATP and DNA

In studying cycling of water, carbon, nitrogen, and other chemicals/elements, ecologists focus on four factors: Biological importance of each chemical Major reservoirs for each chemical Forms in which each chemical is available or used by organisms Key processes driving movement of each chemical through its cycle

The Water Cycle Water is essential to all organisms 97% of the biosphere’s water is contained in the oceans, 2% is in glaciers and polar ice caps, and 1% is in lakes, rivers, and groundwater Figure 55.14 Nutrient cycles Water moves by the processes of evaporation, transpiration (evaporation from plants), condensation, precipitation, and movement through surface and groundwater

The Carbon Cycle Carbon-based organic molecules are essential to all organisms Carbon reservoirs include fossil fuels, soils and sediments, solutes in oceans, plant and animal biomass, and the atmosphere Figure 55.14 Nutrient cycles CO2 is taken up via photosynthesis in plants and released via respiration of animals Volcanoes and the burning of fossil fuels contribute CO2 to the atmosphere

CO2 concentration (ppm) Average global temperature (ºC) Fig. 55-21 14.9 390 14.8 380 14.7 14.6 370 Temperature 14.5 360 14.4 350 14.3 CO2 concentration (ppm) Average global temperature (ºC) 14.2 340 14.1 CO2 330 14.0 Figure 55.21 Increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration at Mauna Loa, Hawaii, and average global temperatures 13.9 320 13.8 310 13.7 300 13.6 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Year

… and Global Temperature

The Nitrogen Cycle Nitrogen is a component of amino acids, proteins, and nucleic acids The main reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere (N2) N2 is converted to NH3 via nitrogen-fixing bacteria Figure 55.14 Nutrient cycles Organic nitrogen is decomposed to NH4+ by ammonification, and NH4+ is decomposed to NO3– by nitrifying bacteria; NH4+ and NO3– assimilated by plants Denitrifying bacteria convert NO3– back to N2

How Bears Feed Salmon to the Forest The run of salmon leads to a major flow of nutrients into estuaries and coastal watersheds

Bears catch salmon in river and consume them in forest; on average, half the carcass is not eaten. Bears’ fat tissue is virtually nitrogen-free, so most of nitrogen in salmon protein is excreted as urine and feces.

Nitrogen 14 from atmosphere Nitrogen 15 from salmon Measurements of nitrogen isotope ratios in tree rings shows that nitrogen from salmon is incorporated into trees and enhances their growth