Uniformitarianism “The Present is the Key to the Past” Laws of nature DON’T change with time Past events explained & estimated by modern processes

Uniformitarianism

Original Horizontality sedimentary rocks form in horizontal layers parallel to Earth’s surface and will remain that way unless disturbed SILT SAND CLAY SILT CLAY EARTH'S SURFACE

Horizontal Layers of the Grand Canyon

Can you infer who is older? Relative Time – determination of the age of a rock or geologic event by comparing with other rocks/geologic events Can you infer who is older? He is

3 Ways to Determine Relative Time………? Coming Right Up!!

Law of Superposition Top = youngest layer In undisturbed sedimentary rock or lava flows In undisturbed sedimentary rock or lava flows: Top = youngest layer Bottom = oldest layer

Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships Any feature that cuts across a rock or layer of sediment is younger than the rock or layer it cuts youngest layer

Example of Cross-Cutting Intrusion - igneous rock that forms when magma squeezes between existing rock and hardens Intrusion - igneous rock that forms when magma squeezes between existing rock and hardens

Example of Cross-cutting Examples of Cross-Cutting Extrusion - igneous rock that forms when lava flows on Earth’s surface and hardens

Example of Cross-cutting Example of Cross-cutting Inclusion - pieces of older rock trapped within younger rock

Examples of Cross-Cutting Faults, joints, tilts, and veins also follow the law of cross--cutting relationships

Law of Included Fragments Sediments are older than the cement and rock they are part of The pebble is older than the conglomerate rock it is found in.

However, there are exceptions to these laws…….

Exceptions to Law of Superposition Rock layers can be overturned, older layers pushed on top of younger layers THEREFORE, geologists use these clues to find the original position of rock layers…

Exceptions to Law of Superposition Graded Bedding - coarse, heavy particles - bottom layer

Exceptions to Law of Superposition Ripple-Marks - tops of ripple marks point

Exceptions to Law of Superposition Cross-Beds - curved at bottom layer, cut off at the top

Unconformity Gaps or missing layers in the rock record due to erosion Angular unconformity

Formation of an Unconformity

Formation of an Unconformity

Formation of an Unconformity

Formation of an Unconformity

Formation of an Unconformity

Picture of Unconformity

Absolute Time – finding an exact date for rocks or geologic events in YBP (years before present) Born 2004 or 1 YBP Born 1922 or 83 YBP

How do geologists measure Absolute Time? Radioactive Decay 2. Biological Clocks - Tree rings, coral growth rings, glacial lake layers of sediment

Before you measure ABSOLUTE TIME you must understand the following terms…..

ISOTOPES - alternate forms of an element - some are RADIOACTIVE

Radioactive isotope - an isotope that undergoes radioactive decay Radioactivity release of high-energy particles from unstable atoms, maybe cancer-causing Radioactive isotope - an isotope that undergoes radioactive decay - used to determine absolute age Examples: Uranium 238 and Carbon 14

Uranium - 238 Radioactive Isotope Radioactive Decay radioactive isotopes give off radioactive particles until they become stable isotopes (new elements) Example: Uranium - 238 Radioactive Isotope Radioactive Decay Lead-206 Stable Isotope

Half - Life Let’s look at the half - life of Uranium 238 Amount of time it takes 1/2 the atoms in a given sample to go through radioactive decay is called it’s Half - Life Let’s look at the half - life of Uranium 238

Pb206 - Stable decay product U238 - Radioactive Pb206 - Stable decay product 1/4 1 : 0 1/2 : 1/2 3/4 1/32 1/8 1/16 ??? 7/8 15/16 31/32

Since the Half - Life of Every Isotope is …. 1. Unique 2. Always the same time 3. Unaffected by: Mass, Volume, Temperature & Pressure

We can use it to find: THE ABSOLUTE AGE OF ROCKS!!!

Half-Lives of Special Isotopes Uranium 238 Lead 206 4.5 x 109 years (4,500,000,000 years) Carbon 14 Nitrogen 14 5.7 x 103 years (5,700 years)

Unknown Radioactive Isotope. half - life = 3000 years Unknown Radioactive Isotope half - life = 3000 years sample size = 200 g Let’s complete the table below. Half Life Remaining Unknown Radioactive Isotope (g) Number of Years 200 1 2 3 4 5 3000 100 50 6000 25 9000 12.5 12,000 6.25 15,000

MASS OF UNKOWN (G) DECAY TIME (YEARS) NOW LET’S GRAPH THE HALF-LIFE OF THE UNKNOWN 200 100 MASS OF UNKOWN (G) 0 Half - Lives 1 Half - Life 2 H - L 3 4 3000 6000 9000 12000 15000 DECAY TIME (YEARS)

Remaining Radioactive C14 (g) Carbon14 half - life = 5,700 years sample size = 800 g Complete the following table. Half Life Remaining Radioactive C14 (g) Number of Years 800 1 2 3 4 5 400 5,700 200 11,400 100 17,100 50 22,800 25 28,500

MASS OF C14 (G) DECAY TIME (YEARS) NOW LET’S GRAPH THE HALF-LIFE OF CARBON 14 800 400 0 Half - Lives MASS OF C14 (G) 1 Half - Life 2 3 4 5,700 11,400 17,100 22,800 28,500 DECAY TIME (YEARS)

Absolute Time vs. Relative Time Most geologists use relative time because it’s - less expensive - easier to do

Absolute Dating & Geologic History

Fossils the remains of plants and animals that lived in the past mainly formed in sedimentary rock

Fossils Form in Several Ways 1. Original remains - unchanged remains of a plant or animal Ex. Dinosaur bones/teeth 2. Replaced remains - soft parts of original animal replaced by minerals Ex. Petrified wood

Fossils Form in Several Ways 3. Mold - fossilized shell or bone dissolves and leaves a hollow depression in a rock Ex. Ferns, leaves, or fish 4. Cast - new mineral material fills a mold Ex. Shellfish

Fossils form in Several Ways 5. Trace fossils - fossil evidence of animal movement Ex. Trails, footprints, burrows & borings

Evolution - process of change that produces new life forms over time - fossils provide evidence of evolution

Natural Selection theory of evolution best adapted organisms will survive in large numbers and pass on these adaptations to their offspring

Index Fossils Index fossils must: 1. Be recognizable 2. Widespread - special fossils that give the relative age of the rocks that contain them Index fossils must: 1. Be recognizable 2. Widespread 3. Exist for a short time

Key Bed - single rock layer that is recognizable, widespread, and exists for a short time

Correlation - matching rock layers from one area to another This can be done in several ways: 1. “Walking the outcrop” 2. Matching similar rock features 3. Index fossils

Correlating or matching index fossils from three outcrops.

Correlate the 3 rock sequences to make a single rock column for the geologic history of the region. (oldest on bottom)

Youngest Oldest

Correlation means “to match” Geologists match all of the following: No place on the earth has all the rocks formed through time. So geologists use correlation to make a single rock column that shows the entire history of the earth. Correlation means “to match” Geologists match all of the following: rock types rock sequences ash layers from volcanic eruptions index fossils

Page 8 & 9 of the Reference Tables.

Each black vertical bar represent the existence of a group of organisms. Extinction First appearance

MASS OF UNKNOWN (G) DECAY TIME (YEARS)

MASS OF C14 (G) DECAY TIME (YEARS)

# of protons + # of neutrons Isotopes - different forms of the same element - normal # of protons - more than normal # of neutrons # of protons + # of neutrons # of protons Normal Hydrogen 1 proton 0 neutrons 1 electron Isotope of Hydrogen 1 proton 1 neutron 1 electron

Radioactive Isotope of Hydrogen 1 proton 2 neutrons 1 electron Radioactive Hydrogen H-3