Material sources for Greek history: archaeological evidence: inscriptions Epigraphy: inscriptions on stone, metal, terracotta – durable materials –typically contemporary –often fragmentary –nearly useless if not dated Genres –poetry, laws, decrees, votes –treaties, dedications, honors

Material sources for Greek history: archaeological evidence: papyri Primary medium for … day-to-day activities –correspondence –petitions –edicts –receipts Limited survival of texts –Aristotles Athenian Constitution –Oxyrhynchos Historian –many fragments of (un)known works

Material sources for Greek history: other archaeological evidence: coins Field of numismatics (<νομίζειν, to use according to νόμος – law or custom) –post 550 BCE, so not applicable earlier –limited use as propaganda, so little internal evidence –long periods of usage, so broad range of dates

Material sources for Greek history: other archaeological evidence: architecture, sculpture, vase painting Architecture –often can be dated –internal ideologies –evidence of wealth –evidence of skill Sculpture, vase painting -can be dated stylistically -reveals social customs -high level of sophistication

Material sources for Greek history: other archaeological evidence: field data Pollen analysis, petrology, animal bones –trade –economics –social customs –settlement patterns –public vs. private space –diet –environmental conditions

All sources for Greek history: literary and material Context is key Congruence is rare Historians must draw upon all sources to complete the picture Next: dating schemes, climate topography and demography CongruenceLiteratureEpigraphyArchaeology

Dating schemes: caveat emptor Each polis used different systems (& calendars) –Athens: eponymous archon lists: 683/2, reliable p.425/4 Panhellenic festivals –Olympiads: 766 –reliable post 600 Religious offices –priestess of Hera at Argos

Dating schemes: putting it all together Synchronisms between –Olympiads and Biblical events –Olympiads and Roman emperors –Squaring with the Gregorian calendar Archaeological evidence –pottery, architecture, sculpture often based on stylistics – development varies widely –Thucydides colonial foundations in Sicily, southern Italy dates are relative; are they reliable? –destruction level of 480 in Athens: all material predates 480 –confirmation from other cultures: Near Eastern destruction levels, Egyptian Pharoaonic dates

Periodization of Greek history

Greece: topography & resources

High Low Altitude Thessaly Boeotia Chalkidike Macedonia Thrace Peloponnese Attica Epirus Asia Minor Cyclades Crete Propontis Pontus = Black Sea (Arcadia, Laconia, Messenia, Argolid, Corinthia) P I N D O S Epirus Thessaly Boeotia Attica Peloponnese Cyclades Crete Asia Minor Propontis Pontus Thrace Chalkidike Macedonia Pindos Mtns

Blackboard questions 1.Matt, Ian, Lucy, Emily: What impact did the natural environment (e.g., climate and agriculture) have on Greek history? –unpredictability & inconsistency diversification –self-sufficiency & autonomy hard collaboration 2.Alex, Teddy, Sarah N.: What role did the demographic profile of ancient Greece play in its history? –demography affects & is affected by environment –mortality rate limited growth, fostering need for slaves –population growth slow & steady, averting epidemics

Greece: topography & resources Topography mountains, rocky soil, jagged coasts, few large fluvial plains; Aegean Sea; islands. Result regarding communities and communication? result: relative isolation; communication by sea Climate hot, dry summers; mild, rainy winters. Result regarding agriculture? result: agriculture difficult, unpredictable, necessitating diversification Resources: food flocks: goats, sheep, pigs; cattle rare, horses (expensive, used for warfare, travel) crop diversification: oil (cooking), grapes (wine), some vegetables, barley (primary foodstuff). Result regarding diet? result: proteins: fish; beans; other goods (e.g., wheat) imported Resources: minerals, timber durable: bronze: copper (plentiful), tin (non-existent); iron (plentiful) luxury: gold (rare), silver (mines in Attica south of Athens) stone: limestone (plentiful), marble (Paros, Attica) timber: northern Aegean / Thrace (structures, shipbuilding) obsidian (volcanic glass): islands – e.g., Melos. Result regarding access? result: control of sea for food, travel, commerce

Natural resources in archaic Greece

Earliest occupation, 200,000 BCE to Franchthi Cave, 18,000 & beyond Hunters / gatherers Subsistence level Self-sufficiency until interest in other goods Embryonic trade Franchthi in Argolid, Peloponnese

Neolithic Greece, BCE Early Bronze Age, BCE Sesklo ( ) Dimini ( ) Lerna ( ) Franchthi Cave (18, )

Sesklo, BCE Dimini, BCE

Lerna, House of Tiles, ca BCE