Life-Course Theories in Emerging Adulthood Individuals and Families: Diverse Perspectives Unit 2 – Chapter 4

Life-Course Theories Describe changes in behaviour in age-graded patterns as individuals mature Behaviour of individuals results from inner psychological changes in response to life circumstances Sometimes called developmental theories Life-course theories are created by analyzing the behaviours of large groups of individuals over a long period of time Life-course theories began to appear in the 1950s Life-course theories reflect the historical and cultural context in which the researchers conducted their studies Developmental theories—implies both growth and improvement in the individual. Both qualitative and quantitative data are used by researchers to identify patterns of behaviour and suggest possible explanations for the pattern. Life-course theories are specific to time and place—a theory developed in North America may not be applicable to other cultures, as the social context in which a person lives has an impact on development. Older theories are still relevant today—they often form the basis of new research and, ultimately, new theories.

Examples of Life-Course Theories Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life Klaus Riegel’s Dimensions of Development Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development The Family Life-Cycle Framework Leonard Pearlin’s Theory of Psychological Distress Daniel Levinson’s Theory of the Seasons of Life Jeffrey Arnett’s Theory of Emerging Adulthood

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Life A series of eight stages in which an individual’s identity emerges and matures Each stage presents a dilemma that must be overcome or the person might face difficulties later in life Psychological and social clocks impact progression through stages Dilemma during adolescence and young adulthood is defined as “identity versus role confusion” Dilemma during young adulthood is “intimacy versus isolation” Identity is an individual’s stable awareness of who he or she is, what he or she does and believes. They are not age-matched stages (biological clock). Dilemma of identity reflects the psychological clock and the social clock of society, and pushes/constrains the person as they move through the stages.

Identity vs. Role Confusion The task is to define who you are and who you will be in the future There are many decisions to be made during this time that will impact on the future Until they define who they are, adolescents and young adults will remain confused about the role they will play in adulthood By resolving the dilemma, individuals acquire the strength of fidelity—the ability to live by society’s standards

Intimacy vs. Isolation Intimacy is being able to merge yourself with another without losing yourself Intimacy is the ability to trust a person enough to reveal your personal thoughts and feelings to them Includes relationships with all people— friends, dating partner, etc. Erikson believes that relationships would be shallow without an identity In Erickson’s theory, intimacy doesn’t equal sex.

Klaus Riegel’s Dimensions of Development Four interrelated internal and external dimensions of development: Internal psychological dimension: emotional maturity, independence, maturity of mental processes Internal biological dimension: physical and sexual maturity External cultural-sociological dimension: expectations and opportunities defined by society External environmental dimension: physical, economic, and political environment in which one lives

Klaus Riegel’s Dimensions of Development Development occurs when a change in one dimension requires an adjustment in one or more of the other dimensions Example: when individuals are physically mature and emotionally ready for marriage, they will marry if they are old enough according to the culture of the society in which they live and if they can afford to live independently within the economic environment. Riegel’s theory is an example of ecological systems theory. It explains how the pace of development varies to reflect the changing of a social clock. Riegel’s theory integrates the physical and psychological dimensions with the external social and environmental dimensions

Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development Identified 10 stages in the formation of the ego Full ego development is described as having an autonomous self Loevinger sees the search for understanding of ego (or identity) as the centre of human development Autonomous self: being self-reliant person who accepts oneself and others as multifaceted and unique Ego was first used by Sigmund Freud to mean identity. Ego development begins in infancy with the understanding that you are an individual, separate from your mother.

Three stages of Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development are relevant to the adolescent and young adult: Conformist stage: view life in simple stereotypical ways Self-aware stage: begin to understand and accept individual differences Have students present examples of behaviours that fit into each of the three stages. Loevinger believed that few adults ever achieve full ego development but strive for it throughout life. Within the same society, the pattern of development is similar for all but the pace varies by individual. Conscientious stage: able to appreciate others as individuals

Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development Loevinger believes individuals require a clear sense of themselves before they can develop intimate relationships with others Progress from one stage to the next is determined by an individual’s psychological clock, not by chronological age or the social environment

The Family Life-Cycle Framework Describes early adulthood as the time when individuals are launched from their families of origin Parents and youth must separate from one another = change in relationship/new roles Family of Orientation  Family of Procreation

Three tasks of the young adult: Forming an identity separate from family of origin Making a commitment to career or workplace role Developing intimate relationships with peers outside of family

Leonard Pearlin’s Theory of Psychological Distress Life course of continuous change required by distress Distress: a stimulus that requires a psychological response Young adults might experience distress as the individual acts to achieve their dreams formed in adolescence This is not a stage theory. Pearlin believes adulthood is not a series of transitions from one period of stability to another.

The path one takes is determined by four elements: Individual characteristics Range of skills an individual has for coping with stress Availability of social support networks Nature and timing of stress that requires a response

Similarities in Life-Course Theories Because individuals change in response to similar external circumstances and stresses that affect their lives (the social clock) Individuals can anticipate and prepare for these role changes (e.g., by socializing) Cohort effect – changes in behaviour result from socialized responses to a common external social clock, not age-linked inner changes

Daniel Levinson’s Theory of the Seasons of Life Life course evolves through seasons lasting about 25 years each From age 17–22, the adult season begins Individuals prepare for an adult life structure by separating from family of origin Levinson talks about changes in the emotional attachment to the family of origin. This allows the young adult to participate in the adult world.

Early Life Structure for Early Adulthood From age 22 to 28, individual enters the adult world—time for building one’s life structure: Forming a Dream and giving it a place in one’s life structure Forming an occupation Forming mentor relationships Forming love relationships, marriage, and family

The Dream The Dream is the individual’s sense of self in the adult world and is the core of the life structure The nature of the Dream will vary but most include a combination of occupation, family, and community roles From ages 22 to 28, young adults build and test a preliminary life structure to attain their Dream Are men’s and women’s Dreams different? The challenge during young adulthood is to balance the creative exploration of various options with the practical desires to make a commitment to life structure that supports their Dream. Look for examples from movies or TV shows where this might be evident. Consider pressures from parents to take over the family business, taking a job for money even though you don’t really like it, pressure to marry someone of the same class or race, etc.

Age-30 Transition From age 28–33, individuals re-evaluate the life structures formed in their 20s “Am I living my dream? If I am to change my life ... I must now make a start, for soon it will be too late.” This is a time to “get real” before “settling down” in their 30s

Jeffrey Arnett’s Theory of Emerging Adulthood Distinct stage in the life course between adolescence and adulthood Arnett argues individuals from 18–25 years of age in industrialized countries are not yet adults but no longer adolescents Emerging adults focus identity exploration in a variety of possible life directions in love, work, and worldviews

Individuals are semi-autonomous Instability Move in and out of the parental home Have not achieved financial independence Most young adults do not feel like they have reached adult status Opportunities for identity exploration separate from and prior to making decisions for adulthood Individuals are semi-autonomous This stage is not universal. It was constructed by post-industrial society in the late 20th century.

Identity Exploration Young adults focus their exploration in three areas: Love Work Worldviews Why might there be more time now for exploration? More young people are going to post-secondary schooling. Marrying later, living together, having sexual intercourse before marriage is more common. There are many opportunities to explore the world for work and volunteering. The “global village” means that we are all more aware. Seems that there is more time for exploration and the opportunity for experimentation now than in the past

Consider the following: Divide into 8 groups Each group will examine one of the photo/figures in Chapter 4 (pages 99–111) Consider the questions presented with each photo. Refer to information from this presentation and the textbook when responding Share your responses with the class. In groups, consider Figures 4-5, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10, 4-11, 4-12, and 4-14. Use the information from this presentation and the textbook when responding to the questions. Make connections between the life-course theories and the photos/questions that are presented.