Figure 6 Vascular dysfunction in epilepsy

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Figure 6 Vascular dysfunction in epilepsy Figure 6 | Vascular dysfunction in epilepsy. a | An intact blood–brain barrier (BBB) prevents egress of blood-borne substances into the brain tissue, safeguarding normal neuronal activity and brain homeostasis in the healthy brain. b | BBB disruption in epileptic tissue allows K+ ions and neurotransmitters such as glutamate to diffuse into the brain parenchyma, causing neuronal hyperactivity. Extravasated plasma albumin is taken up by astrocytes, leading to downregulation of K+ channels, which results in impaired clearance of extracellular K+. Release of cytokines and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) by neurons, astrocytes and microglia further promotes BBB disruption. Lange, C. et al. (2016) Vascular endothelial growth factor: a neurovascular target in neurological diseases Nat. Rev. Neurol. doi:10.1038/nrneurol.2016.88