CONCEPTS TO BE INCLUDED Observation (as data collection method) Naturalistic & contrived observation Participant & non-participant observation Observation or rating observation schedules Event sampling Time sampling

DATA-COLLECTION METHODS: observation

AIM Introducing various types of observation, including Naturalistic & contrived observation Participant & non-participant observation Types of ‘sampling’ in systematic observation Construction observation schedules

OBSERVATION OF BEHAVIOR A data collection method in which observations schedules are used to observe the behavior of a sample of units of observation to say something about a population of units of analysis

WHEN TO USE OBSERVATION? When you are interested … in characteristics of (very) young children or animals or in specific (potentially visible) behaviors of adults … you are advised to use observation Non-verbal and sometimes unobtrusive Because they cannot answer all ‘questions’ Not ‘thoughts’ or ‘opinions’

PHASES IN DOING OBSERVATIONS Formulate a research question, with clear units and variables Select units (individuals, animals) for observation Conceptualize variables you are interested in Create an observation protocol (observation or rating) Design observation instructions and observation training Check inter-observer reliability in a small study Observe behavior Store, analyze and report data

UNITS AND VARIABLES: WHAT TO OBSERVE? Be clear about the units (individuals, animals or events) you want to study, the variables used to describe these units For example: Which children are able to concentrate? In which classes (schools) are children better able to concentrate? The exact research question captures what you are interested in. develop the question when presenting the example”

TWO ASPECTS OF OBSERVATION Theoretical variable(s) Concentration Focus RQ Data Conceptualization Operationalization Measurement All properly formulated research questions are about two things, units and variables … Unit(s) Child(ren)

TYPES OF OBSERVATION (Systematic and non-systematic observation) Naturalistic versus contrived (structured) observation Unobtrusive versus obtrusive observation Participant versus non-participant observation Just give examples of all three when introducing them… (Systematic and non-systematic observation); by the school teacher, but she may just pick out the children she dislikes … a lot of observer bias Naturalistic versus contrived (structured) observation: in a class with a camera (difficult, may happen only sometimes), or in a laboratory setting, which may be safer … Unobtrusive versus obtrusive observation: interference or not by a researcher … Participant versus non-participant observation: you may even ‘participate’ (but other questions can maybe best be answered if the researcher is actually taking part in the behaviors being studied

‘SAMPLING’ IN OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES A: Study a sample of children (or one child on a specific day) B: Study part of the behaviors: Event ‘sampling’ (record types of behaviors) Time sampling (describe behaviors at specific time intervals) Better seen as part of the operationalization The word sampling is NOT just used in the context of selecting the units of observation …

‘SAMPLING’ IN OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES Event ‘sampling’ (Example: record number of times a child gets distracted) Limited number of units Limited number of behaviors All instances of these behaviors

‘SAMPLING’ IN OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES Time sampling =describe behavior at specific time intervals. example: first minute, fifth minute, ninth minute etc. Larger number of units Larger number of behaviors Not all instances of these behaviors (sampling)

(NOT) INTERPRETING BEHAVIOR Example: a child is looking out the window Observer bias: personal characteristics determine observations Observer drift: interpretations change over time Observation schedule: “a description of how to write down behaviors in such a way that everyone at every moment in time would write down the same thing” Observer bias: observer is biased, because she interprets all ‘non active’ behavior as not being concentrated. Observer drift: observers ’learn’ that some behaviors are or are not intstances of concentration So, THAT is why you need an observation schedule!

DESCRIPTIONS & RATINGS BY OBSERVERS Observing behaviors (reducing interpretation – decreasing comparability) Rating behaviors (increasing interpretation – increasing comparability) In both case: make clear how the measurement relate to the concepts you want to observe (validity).

OBSERVATION SCHEDULE A: Categories to be used when recording observations Ratings or observational categories B: Instructions describing how to use the schedule

CHECKING THE OBSERVATION SCHEDULE Check whether rater/observer/coder ’see the same thing’ (A or B) Agreement scores: =inter-rater/observer/coder reliability A B x

THIS MICROLECTURE Introducing various types of observation, including Naturalistic & contrived observation Participant & non-participant observation Time sampling and event sampling Observation and rating Observation and rating schedules

IMAGES USED No reference needed