Everything’s An Argument Chapter 2 Reading and Writing Arguments Andrea A. Lunsford John J. Ruskiewicz Keith Walters

Connecting as Reader or Writer Writers do not write in a cultural vacuum. Writers’ works are influenced by who they are. Race Religion Gender Ethnicity Class Intelligence

Must think about readers’ perceptions, values, possible prejudices. Readers’ perceptions of writer influence their reception of what has been written. Must think about readers’ perceptions, values, possible prejudices. Establish some connection with readers. Familiarity Presenting yourself as authority

Look at me! Look at my arm! I have ploughed and planted, and gathered into barns, and no man could head me. And ain’t I a woman?... I have borne thirteen children, and seen most all sold off to slavery, and when I cried out with my mother’s grief, none but Jesus heard me. And ain’t I a woman? Sojourner Truth “Ain’t I a Woman?”

Understanding Lines of Argument Four Types of Appeals Arguments from the Heart Arguments based on Values Arguments based on Character Arguments based on Fact and Reason

Finding Arguments from the Heart Designed to appeal to the readers’ emotions and feelings. Can cause readers to think more carefully about subject. Persuading reader not to drink and drive telling a story of a teen or young mother killed by drunk driver

Sometimes we have to be wary because emotions can lead to unwise or impulsive judgments. Advertising Driving a certain car will make you feel superior to others. Wearing a certain brand of clothing will make you feel good about yourself because you are in style

Finding Arguments Based on Values Closely related to emotional appeals Writer either Asks reader to live up to higher principles, respected traditions, or new values Complains that they have not done so Close ties with ceremonial arguments. Define or celebrate values/ideals of a society Be aware of the values/ideals of community.

Finding Arguments Based on Character As writer, must seem honest, sincere, and trustworthy. Look for evidence of character in arguments Who is the author? Is writer an authority on topic/knowledgeable about topic? Is evidence presented full/complete, not slanted to writer’s agenda? Does writer acknowledge and address opposition? Are sources documented?

As author, you must consider Language Organization & structure Sense of authority

Finding Arguments Based on Facts & Reason Writer must provide enough evidence to support argument. Test all assumptions and claims. Question every source and authority cited. data and information from reliable sources

Making a Claim Claim: statement of belief or truth Can be plainly stated (more traditional arguments). Can be inferred (in stories, anecdotes, etc.). Claims must be attached to reasons that support it and premises that uphold it to be an argument. Can have several claims in one essay. Look at relationship among them

Giving an Argument Shape Arguments must have logical structure, even if appeal uses emotion, values, or character. Aristotle asserted arguments had only 2 parts: Statement (claim) Proof (evidence)

Giving an Argument Style Have to think of the way the evidence is presented. Even logical, well-planned argument can be boring. Have to tailor your style to the topic What is most appropriate Style can tell readers what to expect Examples on pg. 40 1st is straightforward and to-the-point 2nd is humorous/tongue-in-cheek

Composing a Rhetorical Analysis Who is the audience for this argument? How does the argument connect with its audience? What is the purpose of this argument? What does it hope to achieve? What are the contexts—social, political, historical, cultural—for this argument? How does the argument fit into the world? Whose interests does it serve? Who gains or loses by it?

What appeals does the argument use? What emotional arguments or techniques does it use? What value does it invoke or count on? What authorities does the argument rely on or appeal to? Who is making the argument, and are they trustworthy?

What facts are used in the argument? What claims are advanced in the argument? What issues are raised and which are ignored or, perhaps, silenced? What shape does the argument take? How are arguments presented or arranged? What media do the arguments use? How does the language or style of the argument work to persuade an audience?