Introduction to Ethics Lecture 1-b What is Philosophy? (Part 2) By David Kelsey

Arguments The second major task of philosophy is making arguments. An argument: one statement is inferred from one or more other statements. Example:

Inferences An inference: a statement that follows from one or more other statements.

Statements A statement is a proposition. A proposition is the meaning of a sentence: Just like words have meanings, sentences have meanings.

Propositions The form of a proposition: ‘it is the case that…’. Propositions are true or false.

Propositions & Sentences A sentence does two different things: it both expresses a proposition and asserts a proposition. The expressed proposition: The literal meaning of the words of that sentence. Question: What is literal meaning?

Expressing a proposition For a sentence to express a proposition: is for that sentence to toss the proposition up in the air, so to speak. It is to put the proposition up for usage. Knowing what proposition a sentence expresses is often quite easy.

The asserted Proposition Making use of a proposition: Just how a sentence makes use of the proposition a sentence expresses determines it’s actual or intended meaning. The proposition asserted: the actual or intended meaning of a sentence The actual or intended meaning of a sentence: What the speaker or writer of the sentence means when she writes or says it.

Miscommunication Miscommunication: When the hearer doesn’t take the sentence to assert what the speaker intends

Sarcasm Other kinds of sentences: Sarcasm: The messy roomate: “She always takes out the trash”. This sentence expresses: But the sentence asserts: Other occassions when meaning splits:

Arguments Again Arguments: when one proposition is inferred from one or more other propositions Other definitions of an Argument

Arguments Argument: a position supported by reasons for its truth. To take a position: An issue: what is raised when one considers whether or not a proposition is true. There are always 2 sides to an issue

Issues Issues: we might go as far as to say that an issue just is a question. Intelligent life: Safety belt law: Mac vs. Pc:

Arguments & Positions Arguments & Positions: so when we take a position on an issue and support it with reasons we have given an argument. Intelligent life: Safety Belt law: Mac vs. Pc:

Conclusions & Premises Arguments: The conclusion of an argument: The premises of an argument: Examples: Socrates again April Showers

What an argument isn’t What an argument isn’t: Let us be a bit clearer about what an argument is by stating what it isn’t. Not a Fight: Not Persuasion: Advertisement example:

Persuasion Persuasion vs. Argument: An argument offers support for some claim, its conclusion. Persuasion needn’t offer any support for a point. Not Logic: It merely attempts to get you to believe a point. This attempt needn’t be one through logic though. Persuasion through rhetoric: Rhetoric: is “a broad category of linguistic techniques people use when their primary objective is to influence beliefs and attitudes and behavior”

Arguments vs. Explanations Explanation of X: If one gives an explanation about some thing X, one gives some details about X with the hope of coming to better understand X. Example: fixing a flat tire

Recognizing Arguments Conclusion Indicators: find the conclusion of an argument by looking for conclusion indicators. Examples of Conclusion Indicators: therefore, hence, and others Premise Indicators: find the premises of an argument by looking for premise indicators Examples of Premise Indicators: because, since, and others.

Explicit Premises Explicit premises: asserted by the words of the text.

Implicit Premises Implicit or unstated premises: Bloodhound example: Not made explicit by the text so must be inferred from the words of the text Are entailed by the words of the text. Bloodhound example: Moore’s dog is a bloodhound, so it has a keen sense of smell What is the implicit premise?