Stage 1 – Gender labelling ( 2-3 ½)

Stage 2 – Gender stability (3 ½ - 4½)

Stage 3 - Gender Consistency (7ish+)

LO: Outline and Evaluate the Cognitive Theories of gender development SPECFICATION CONTENT  COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY (including Kohlberg’s gender consistency theory), AND  GENDER SCHEMA THEORY

(NB, Freud’s theory is a psychological but NOT a cognitive theory – he believed that gender, like all aspects of personality, is based in how BIOLOGICAL DRIVES interact with the environment.)

Martin & Haverson’s (1988) Gender Schema Theory The cognitive development approach focuses on how children’s thinking changes as they get older Comparing the 2 main theories: Kohlberg’s (1966) Cognitive Developmental staged theory and Martin & Haverson’s (1988) Gender Schema Theory Kohlberg predicts that as a child’s cognition (i.e. way of thinking) matures, so will their understanding of gender This is based upon the interaction between maturation and environment

Kohlberg’s stages 2-3 yrs Gender Child knows they are boy/girl Identity ~4 yrs Gender Child becomes aware that gender Stability is fixed but still focuses on appearance (Do not understand gender is consistent across situations – men may turn into females if engage in female activities!) ~ 7yrs Gender Child understands that changes Constancy in appearance/ activity don’t alter gender (conservation) Influenced by Piaget: 6-7yrs capable of conservation – know that things remain constant even with change

Stage 1 – Gender labelling ( 2-3 ½) I am 2 and I am a girl. I have longish hair and I wear pretty dresses. I am 2 and I am a boy. My hair is short and I wear jeans and blue jumpers

Easy. That is a girl because the hair is long Hmmm – What do you think? Boy or Girl? Easy. That is a girl because the hair is long And that is a boy because they are wearing dungarees Sorted!

Stage 2 – Gender stability (3 ½ - 4½) Yes and Johnny can be a woman if he does the hoovering A woman A man When I grow up I will be…. And I will be…. But they can change depending on the activity. So Cheryl could be a man if she mends the car

Stage 3 - Gender Consistency (7ish+) I think I’ve sussed it. It doesn’t matter whether your hair is long or short or what you wear; you are either a boy or girl and that’s how you stay Yep. I think you are right. Just because my dad cooks the dinner and my mum cleans the car doesn’t mean that they are not still a man and a woman. Phew – that’s sorted then!

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY: KOHLBERG’S (1966) Once understood that gender is constant - become motivated to behave in way that is expected of them as boy or girl Theory predicts children should pay attention to same-sex role models and show gender role behaviours only when they have full understanding of their gender and strong sense that it is for life. Gender role behaviours should appear around or after age of five.

So simply put ... Children’s discovery that they are male or female causes them to identify with their own sex (opposite to Social Learning theory). “I am a boy, therefore I want to do boy things, therefore the opportunity to do boy things (and to gain approval for doing them) is rewarding” (Kohlberg, 1966)

Kohlberg’s stages 2-3 yrs Gender Child knows they are boy/girl Identity ~4 yrs Gender Child becomes aware that gender Stability is fixed but still focuses on appearance (Do not understand gender is consistent across situations – men may turn into females if engage in female activities!) ~ 7yrs Gender Child understands that changes Constancy in appearance/ activity don’t alter gender (conservation) Influenced by Piaget: 6-7yrs capable of conservation – know that things remain constant even with change

Cognitive Developmental Theory : RESEARCH Slaby and Frey (1975): the development of children’s understanding of gender in relation to the attention they give to the same-sex models Kids of 2-5 yrs, divided into high and low gender constancy groups, shown a silent film 1 male & 1 female adults carrying out stereotyped gender role activity (baking/fixing car), shown on split screen. Eye movement and direction of gaze were recorded. High gender constancy kids spent more time watching same sex models than Low. Supports Kohlberg's claim that kids pay attention to same sex models after stage of constancy has been reached.

Cognitive Developmental Theory : RESEARCH Ruble (1981) considered the r’ship between gender constancy and the child’s responsiveness to TV adverts for girl and boy toys. Children who had reached gender constancy were sensitive to the implicit message of the advert that certain toys were right or wrong for boys or girls. Their willingness to play with the toy was depended on how gender suitable they felt the toy was

Cognitive Developmental Theory : RESEARCH McConaghy (1979) found that children aged 3-4 used hair length and clothes (rather than genitals) to decide whether a doll is male or female (gender stability but NOT constancy)

BUT There are lots of studies that have found children to be sensitive to gender before Kohlberg predicts... Martin & Halverston (1981): Kids pay attention to gender related behaviours much earlier than Kohlberg suggested. They use constructed schemas by the age of two when gender labelling is achieved. Kuhn et al (1978): Kids 2-3.5yrs shown paper dolls called Michael & Lisa. Asked which would say ‘I like to help mummy’, ‘I like to fight’ and ‘I need some help’ Shared some beliefs about gender roles (e.g. girls like to help mummy and boys like to play with cars). Girls and Boys shared positive attributes about their gender (i.e. girls believed girls look pretty and never fight and boys believed that boys work hard and are loud).

but if photos were used, Bem (1989)  the Could this be down to the methods used? (AO2/3  impact of methodology on research findings) Emmerlich et al (1977) found that preschoolers couldn’t identify the underlying gender if changes had been made to drawings (e.g. A boy in a dress) but if photos were used, Bem (1989)  the children could do so, especially if shown nude photos first.

Evaluations of Kohlberg’s theory I +ve Cross-cultural research provides us with an opportunity to determine aspects of human development and behaviour. Munroe et al (1984) sequence of gender concept is similar in other cultures (Kenya, Nepal, Samoa) cross-culturally biological development (especially brain maturity) is similar, lending credibility to claims that cognitive maturation is more important than different social experiences in gender concept development -ve The theory tends to concentrate on cognitive factors and therefore may be overlooking important cultural and social influences, such as parents and friends

Evaluations of Kohlberg’s theory II -ve Child will demonstrate gender appropriate behaviour and reward gender appropriate behaviours before they have reached gender constancy, casting some doubt onto Kohlberg’s idea of universal stages of development -ve Kohlberg may have underestimated the age at which gender cognition occurs. Bem (1981) believes child has awareness of gender and gender specific behaviours from around the age of 2 years due to the development of gender schemas

Bem (1981) and Martin & Halverson (1987) Gender Schema Theory Bem (1981) and Martin & Halverson (1987) Addresses main problem of Kohlberg’s  that sex-typed behaviour emerges long before children reach an understanding of gender consistency (and includes elements of SLT). Children learn ‘pre-programmed’ gender schema – developed between age 2-3, work out if they are boy or a girl Have a simple gender schema  view own group as ‘in-group’ and opposite as ‘out-group’ Boys pay close attention to boy’s toys, pay minimal attention to anything ‘girly’; Girls focus actively on girly things and avoid anything perceived to be ‘boy-stuff’

Identification with appropriate gender Kohlberg’s theory = Gender Schema Theory Gender understanding Identification with appropriate gender Kohlberg Gender Schema Theory

GENDER SCHEMA THEORY Supporting Research Campbell (2000) - 3 moth old babies showed minor preference for watching same sex babies. 9 months boys, preferred to look at and watch ‘boy toys’ and male activities (stronger in boys). Another study – 2 yr olds gender labelling = rapid gender schema development Liben&Signorella (1993) - showed pictures of adults engaging in activities normally attributed to the opposite sex; found that children had distorted their memory to fit the gender schema (eg male nurse became female)

‘Cognitive Developmental’ Vs. ‘Gender Schema’

Both Kohlberg’s CDT staged theories and GST... See the child as active, making hypotheses and testing them See cognition as the main driving force for development Ignore social factors and biology Have problems accounting for why gender becomes such a salient category (as opposed to hair colour which is more visible). This can only really be explained by power and social construction.

GENDER SCHEMA: EVALUATION I See the child as active, seeking out information about gender and trying to make sense of the world they live in Helps us to understand why children's beliefs and attitudes are rigid. Children pay attention to things that are consistent with and confirm their schemas. Therefore, contradicting schema will not be noticed (i.e. Female mechanic)  Studies show when young children watch films which depict contradicting gender role behaviours, they tune them out

GENDER SCHEMA: EVALUATION II BUT -ve Emphasises how schemas develop but not where originate. -ve Issues with causality: it is unclear whether the schemata cause the behaviour or whether the behaviour occurs unconsciously before the formation of schemata, due to external reinforcement\modelling (free will vs determinism?)