Construct an idea/concept constructed by the scientist to explain events observed, e.g. self-concept; intelligence; social identity not necessarily clearly observable or measurable; an abstract variable

Variable from Conceptual to Operational; from abstract (construct) to measurable (indicators); can be singular or plural can have different levels of meanings (from concepts to indicators)

Deprivation Physical Economic Social Political social isolation Concept Physical Economic Social Political social isolation absence of socially valued roles lack of social skills Questions to measure social skills, e.g., introversion/extroversion scales, assertiveness scale social self-concept popularity with peers Measures of social isolation, eg., no. of friends no. of organisation involvements contacts with neighbours Questions to determine social roles Indicators

Models representations of the complex reality of the real world not necessarily true or verifiable usually presented in a structural form can indicate a content structure or a process structure

Shavelson et al.’s (1976) model of self-concept Example of Content Model General Self-Concept General: Academic and Non-Academic Self-Concept: Academic Self-Concept Social Self-Concept Emotional Self-Concept Physical Self-Concept Subareas of Self-Concept: English History Math Science Peers Significant Others Particular Emotional States Physical Ability Physical Appearance Evaluation of Behavior in Specific Situations: Shavelson et al.’s (1976) model of self-concept

Example of Process Model parenting self-esteem & self-concept anti-social behaviour peers relationship academic achievements

Types of Variables Variable - an attribute (characteristic /property) of a person or object that can change or differ e.g. sex, motivation, life happiness Independent Variable - to be manipulated, antecedent, has effect on the dependent (observed) variable, e.g. medical treatment, learning strategy, income, anxiety level, etc

Types of Variables (contin.) Dependent Variable - to be observed /measured, dependent on the experimental or treatment condition Confounding/extraneous Variable - distorts or masks the IV effects on DV, to be controlled Control Variable - to neutralize confounding effects, to be held constant

Conceptualization Purpose: exploratory, descriptive, explanatory Choose a strategy (experiment, survey, case study) Cross-sectional /longitudinal design? Qualitative /Quantitative methods Operationalization

Validity of Research Does social anxiety negatively affect memory? Any confounding variable? Memory Anxiety

Internal Validity The extent to which the outcomes result from the study itself (i.e. the experimental conditions, manipulation) but not from other conditions not systematically treated.

External Validity The extent that findings of a study can be generalized other than those observed. Counteract Validity Threats Use control group: placebo /neutral condition Random assignment of subjects/participants Pre-test (if random assignment not feasible) True Experimental Designs not always feasible in real world - So, use quasi-experimental or ex post facto designs Non-experimental designs? Naturalistic Designs?