Protective and pro-inflammatory roles of intestinal bacteria Cynthia Reinoso Webb, Iurii Koboziev, Kathryn L. Furr, Matthew B. Grisham  Pathophysiology  Volume 23, Issue 2, Pages 67-80 (June 2016) DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2016.02.002 Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. Terms and Conditions

Fig. 1 Relative abundance of the major intestinal phyla in humans, mice and zebrafish. Deep sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene reveals that while the relative abundance of specific bacterial phyla may differ, mammals and teleosts possess similar bacterial communities. Human and zebrafish pie charts were derived from Refs. [121,166], respectively (with permission). Mouse pie chart was generated from colonic luminal contents of healthy C57Bl/6 mice housed at the TTUHSC animal facility (unpublished data). Pathophysiology 2016 23, 67-80DOI: (10.1016/j.pathophys.2016.02.002) Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. Terms and Conditions

Fig. 2 Spatial organization of microbial communities and physiological gradients along the mammalian gastrointestinal tract. The numbers and types of bacterial communities, as well as physiological factors vary along the length of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. It is well-appreciated that the oxygen levels, bile acid concentrations, intestinal motility, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) and luminal pH in proximal portion of the GI tract (stomach, duodenum, jejunum) play major roles in restricting the numbers and types of microorganisms. In general, aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria are found almost exclusively in the proximal portion of the GI tract. The hypoxic nature and more physiological pH of the distal small intestine (ileum) and colon coupled to overall reductions of bile acids, AMPs and gut motility, allows for unfettered growth of large numbers of obligate anaerobic bacteria. These oxygen-sensitive microbes are capable of producing large quantities of short chain fatty acids (SCFAs; acetate, proprionate, butyrate) from complex carbohydrates (fiber) to be used for important colonic and immunologic processes. Figure derived from Refs. [38,139,214]. The anatomical structure of the gastrointestinal tract with associated microbial communities and bacterial load were reproduced from Ref. [139] with permission. Pathophysiology 2016 23, 67-80DOI: (10.1016/j.pathophys.2016.02.002) Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. Terms and Conditions