Motivating for Performance Chapter 13 McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Motivating for Performance Motivation Forces that energize, direct, and sustain a person’s efforts. Managers must motivate people to: join the organization, remain in the organization come to work regularly

Setting Goals Goal setting theory Goals that motivate should be people have conscious goals that energize them and direct their thoughts and behaviors toward one end Goals that motivate should be acceptable to employees challenging but attainable specific, quantifiable, and measurable feedback should be provided Limitations of goal setting individualized goals create can reduce cooperation single productivity goals interfere with other dimensions of performance

Reinforcing Performance Law of effect behavior that is followed by positive consequences will be repeated Reinforcers positive consequences that motivate behavior Organizational behavior modification (OB Mod) application of reinforcement theory in organizational settings influences people’s behavior through the control of consequences of people’s actions

Reinforcing Performance (cont.) Consequences of behavior positive reinforcement - applying valued consequences that increase the likelihood that a person will repeat the behavior that led to it negative reinforcement - removing or withholding an undesirable consequence can involve the threat of punishment punishment - administering an aversive consequence or withdrawing a reinforcer extinction - withdrawing or failing to provide a reinforcing consequence

Reinforcement and Punishment Immediately After Behavior Present Withdraw   Positive Positive Punishment Reinforcer Reinforcement Negative Punishment Negative Reinforcer Reinforcement

The Consequences of Behavior Figure 13.1

Performance-Related Beliefs Expectancy model proposes that people behave based on the perception that their effort will lead to valued outcomes expectancy - employees’ perception of the likelihood that their efforts will enable them to attain their performance goals instrumentality - perceived likelihood that performance will be followed by a particular outcome valence - value an outcome holds for the person contemplating it for motivation to be high, expectancy, instrumentalities, and total valence of all outcomes must all be high

Expectancy Model Effort  Performance  Outcomes Expectancy = Effort  Performance Training, abilities, role perceptions have an effect on expectancy Instrumentality=PerformanceOutcomes If I perform the intended behavior, what will be the outcomes Valence = Importance of Outcomes

Managerial Implications of Expectancy Theory Increase expectancies Identify positively valent outcomes Make performance instrumental toward positive outcomes

Understanding People’s Needs Content theories indicate the kinds of needs that people want to satisfy the extent to which a person’s needs are met or not met affect her/his behavior on the job Maslow’s need hierarchy human needs are organized into five major types physiological - food, water, sex, and shelter safety or security - protection against threat and deprivation social - friendship, affection, belonging, and love Ego/esteem - independence, achievement, freedom, recognition, and self-esteem self-actualization - realizing one’s potential

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs 14.8 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self- Actualization Esteem/Ego Affiliation/ Social Security/Safety Physiological Adapted from Figure 14.4 4

ERG Model of Motivation 14.9 ERG Model of Motivation Frustration-Regression Satisfaction-Progression Growth Needs Relatedness Needs Existence Needs Adapted from Figure 14.5 5

McClelland’s Needs Theory Need for Achievement (nAch) McClelland’s Needs Theory Need for Power (nPow) s Need for Affiliation (nAff) McGraw-Hill © 2004 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

McClelland’s Needs Need for achievement Need for affiliation characterized by a strong orientation toward accomplishment and an obsession with success and goal attainment. Need for affiliation reflects a strong desire to be liked by other people Need for power a desire to influence or control other people

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Hygiene factors Characteristics of the workplace, such as company policies, working conditions, pay, and supervision, that can make people dissatisfied. Motivators Factors that make a job more motivating, such as additional job responsibilities, opportunities for personal growth and recognition, and feelings of achievement

Designing Motivating Jobs Job rotation changing from one routine task to another to alleviate boredom can benefit everyone when done properly Job enlargement giving people additional tasks at the same time to alleviate boredom additional tasks at the same level of responsibility Job enrichment changing a task to make it inherently more rewarding, motivating, and satisfying adds higher levels of responsibility

Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.) The Hackman and Oldham model of job design three critical psychological states meaningfulness - believe that work is important responsibility - feel personally responsible for the work knowledge of results - know how well the job was performed psychological states produced by five core job dimensions skill variety - different job activities involving several skills task identity - completion of a whole, identifiable piece of work task significance - important impact on the lives of others autonomy - independence and discretion in making decisions feedback - information about job performance

Designing Motivating Jobs (cont.) The Hackman and Oldham model of job design (cont.) effective job enrichment increases all five core dimensions effectiveness of a job enrichment program depends on a person’s growth need strength growth need strength - degree to which individuals want personal and psychological development

Hackman & Oldham Job-Enrichment Model 14.6 Hackman & Oldham Job-Enrichment Model Five Job Characteristics Skill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Feedback Three Critical Psychological States Growth Need Strength Experienced meaningfulness of work Experienced responsibility for work outcomes Knowledge of actual work results Personal and Work Outcomes High internal work motivation High quality work performance High satisfaction with the work Low absenteeism and turnover Adapted from Figure 14.3

Achieving Fairness Equity theory A theory stating that people assess how fairly they have been treated according to two key factors: outcomes and inputs.

Equity Theory Outcomes Inputs refer to the various things the person receives on the job: recognition, pay, benefits, satisfaction, security, job assignments, and punishments Inputs refer to the contributions the person makes to the organization: effort, time, talent, performance, extra commitment, and good citizenship

Reactions to Inequity –under-reward situations Reduce inputs – less effort, absenteeism, play computer games Increase outcomes – ask for raise, theft, absenteeism Decrease outcomes for others Modify comparison Leave – find a more equitable job Distort reality

Equity Sensitivity The questions below ask what you’d like for your relationship to be with any organization for which you might work. On each question, divide 10 points between the two choices (choice A and choice B) by giving the most points to the choice that is most like you and the fewest points to the choice that is least like you. You can, if you’d like, give the same number of points to both choices (for example, 5 points to choice A and 5 points to choice B). And you can use zeros if you like. Just be sure to allocate all 10 points per question between each pair of possible responses. 

In any organization I might work for:  1. It would be more important for me to: __________ A. Get from the organization __________ B. Give to the organization   2. It would be more important for me to: __________ A. Help others __________ B. Watch out for my own good 3. I would be more concerned about what I: __________ A. received from the organization __________ B. contributed to the organization

In any organization I might work for: 4. The hard work I would do should: __________ A. Benefit the organization __________ B. Benefit me   5. My personal philosophy in dealing with the organization would be: __________ A. If I don’t look out for myself, nobody else will __________ B. It’s better for me to give than to receive

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Equity Sensitive I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other 21

EQUITY SENSITIVITY Equity Sensitives outcomes/inputs (self) = outcomes/inputs (other) Consistent with original concept of equity Dissatisfied with under-reward and over-reward

New Perspectives on Equity Theory I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other Benevolent 22

BENEVOLENTS Prefer higher ratio of inputs to outcomes Place more emphasis on intrinsic outcomes Prefer meaningful work, challenge, achievement Willing to produce more at a lower salary

New Perspectives on Equity Theory Entitled I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other 23

ENTITLEDS Prefer higher outcome to input ratio than others Place more importance on extrinsic outcomes Emphasize pay, fringe benefits, security More sensitive to underpayment

Psychological Contracts A set of perceptions of what employees owe their employers, and what their employers owe them has important implications for employee satisfaction/motivation Benefits provided by the organization Benefits promised by Contributions provided by the employee Contributions promised versus