Memory The ability to remember things we have experienced, imagined, or learned Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing model Encoding – forming a memory code Keyboard Storage – maintaining encoded information in memory over time Saving data on hard drive Retrieval – recovering information from memory storage Displaying data on the monitor

Attention Selects certain information for further processing We normally pay attention to only a small portion of incoming information

Encoding Process/Levels of processing Some information is stored visually, the physical structure of the stimulus - – structural encoding Shallow processing Much information is stored in STM phonologically (according to how it sounds) – phonemic encoding Intermediate processing

Encoding in Long-Term Memory Most information is encoded in terms of meaning – semantic encoding Deep processing Some information is stored verbatim Some information is coded in terms of nonverbal images

Memory Atkinson-Shiffrin theory Memory storage involves 3 separate systems: Sensory memory – fraction of a second to several seconds Short-term memory – up to 30 seconds Long-term memory – up to a lifetime

Sensory Memory Sensory registers are the first stop for all sensory information The sensory registers are very large, but information stays for only a very short time

Visual vs. Auditory memory Iconic (visual) vs. Echoic (auditory) memories George Sperling’s classic study – pg 213

Visual and Auditory Registers Visual register holds images, or icons, that represent all aspects of a visual image Icons normally last about ¼ second in the visual register No meaning Auditory register holds echoes of sound Echoes can last up to several seconds in the auditory register

Short-Term Memory Short-term memory holds information we are aware of or thinking about at any given moment Sometimes referred to as working memory Information selected by attention from sensory memory, may pass into STM

Capacity of Short-Term Memory STM allows us to retain information long enough to use it, e.g. looking up a telephone number and remembering it long enough to dial it. Research has demonstrated that STM lasts approximately between 15 and 30 seconds, unless people rehearse the material

Capacity of Short-Term Memory Larger amounts of information can be held by using the process of chunking Miller has found that STM has a limited capactiy of around 7 “chunks” of information George Miller, 1956 “Magical number seven, plus or minus 2” Individuals can recall only about seven items in a task that required them to remember unfamiliar material

Capacity of Storage Chunking – a way of increasing the capacity of your STM by combining stimuli into larger, possibly higher-order units Chunk – a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit

Capacity of Short-Term Memory STM also appears to mostly encode memory acoustically (sound), but can also retain visuospatial images.

Maintaining Short-Term Memory Information can be held in STM by using rote rehearsal, also called maintenance rehearsal maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information over and over This technique is not very effective in creating long term memories

Long Term Memory

Long-Term Memory Everything that is learned is stored in long-term memory LTM provides the lasting retention of information and skills, from minutes to a lifetime Capacity of long-term memory Vast amounts of information may be stored for many years No known limits to capacity

Serial Position Effect People tend to recall the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list Demonstrates how short- and long-term memory work together Primacy effect reflects long-term memory Recency effect reflects short-term memory

Serial Position Effect

Retrieval Recognition – identification of learned items when they are presented I.e., Multiple choice exam Recall – retrieval of previously learned information i.e., Essay exam

Maintaining Long-Term Memory maintenance rehearsal Repetition can result in long-term memory Only effective if there is intent to learn material Example: What does a penny look like? The accurate picture is the one third from the left. Most people will get this wrong because although they have seen a lot of pennies, they never pay attention so they never learn.

Maintaining Long-Term Memory Elaborative rehearsal Process of relating new information to information already stored in memory Meaning is assigned to new information and then linked to as much existing knowledge as possible

Sequence of Information Processing

Schemata A schema is a set of beliefs or expectations about something based on past experience Incoming information is fit with existing schemata Schemata can also influence the amount of attention paid to a given event

Schemata People are more likely to remember things that are consistent with their schemas than things that are not However, individuals sometimes exhibit better recall of items that violate their schema-based expectations

Schema Activity http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r63tSi6_zOU

Gender Schema http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ql6UQP_tAsU

Types of Long-Term Memory Episodic memories Memories for personal events in a specific time and place (life events) Semantic memories Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time (things learned in school) Procedural memories Motor skills and habits Emotional memories Learned emotional responses to various stimuli

Types of Long-Term Memory Prospective Memory Prospective memory is the ability to remember to do something in the future (e.g., remembering to return someone's phone call, or the time and day of your dentist appointment next week). This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit memory Memory for information we can readily express and are aware of having This information can be intentionally recalled Declarative Memory System – Episodic and Semantic

Explicit and Implicit Memory Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having Cannot be intentionally retrieved Nondeclarative memory - Procedural , memories, classical conditioning

The Biology of Memory How are memories formed? Changes in synaptic connections among neural cells Called long-term potentiation Where are memories stored? There is no one place Different parts of the brain are specialized for different types of information

Where Are Memories Stored?

www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pq0aQAG0A3o&feature=youtu.be

Amygdala Right side of the Amygdala Left side of the Amygdala Focuses on the overall picture of events More activated in males Left side of the Amygdala Focuses on the details of events More activated in females

Forgetting

Memory Ebbinghaus – first to research on memory Forgetting Curve He concluded that most forgetting occurs very rapidly after learning something – without meaning.

The Biology of Forgetting Decay theory Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time Amnesia Memory loss caused by accidents, surgery, poor diet, or disease Retrograde amnesia Loss of memory from prior to an accident or injury Anterograde amnesia Loss of memory from after the accident or injury

Experience and Forgetting Retroactive interference Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory Ie., Can’t remember your old phone number; can’t remember plays from Varela Proactive interference Occurs when information already in memory interferes with new information Ie., Can’t remember new phone number; can’t remember new plays from Ferguson

Experience and Forgetting PORN Proactive – can remember Old Retroactive – can remember New

Interference

Experience and Forgetting Situational factors Recall of information is better if environment is the same as when information was learned State-dependent memory Recall of information is better if person is in the same physiological state as when information was learned Reconstruction Memories can be altered with each retrieval

How to Reduce Forgetting Develop motivation Practice memory skills Be confident in your ability to remember Minimize distractions Stay focused Make meaningful connections to what is in long-term memory Use mental imagery Use retrieval cues Rely on more than memory alone Be aware of possible distortion due to schemata

Special Topics in Memory Autobiographical memory Recollection of events in our life More recent events are easier to recall Childhood Amnesia Generally poor memory for events prior to age two May occur because brain in not fully developed at birth Another theory is that it may be due to lack of clear sense of self in young children

Special Topics in Memory Extraordinary memory Includes eidetic imagery (photographic memory) Usually due to well developed memory techniques Flashbulb memories Vivid memories of dramatic event May occur because of strong emotional content

Special Topics in Memory Flashbulb memories Vivid memories of dramatic event May occur because of strong emotional content Distinctly vivid, precise, concrete, long lasting memories of the personal circumstances surrounding people’s discovery of shocking events (stressful situations)

Flashbulb memory Flashbulb memories Bring out very clear personal memories of the context in which someone hears the news Time affects the forgetting curve for FB memories less than it does with other memories

Flashbulb memory During a stressful situation, the sympathetic nervous system activates and pours epinephrine and norepinephrine into one’s bloodstream When the sympathetic nervous system activates it also signals the hippocampus into a more alert state, heightening memory consolidation

Flashbulb memory During a mild to moderate stressor, cognition is enhanced This is why you can easily recall the events from your Senior Picnic Prolonged stressors damage memory consolidation and emotional stability, a process that also increases the risk of mental illness

Special Topics in Memory Eyewitness testimony Shown to be unreliable People’s recall for events may be influenced by what they heard or imagined Elizabeth Loftus, 1979, 1992 Misinformation effect – reconstructive distortions show up frequently in eye-witness testimony Loftus & Palmer, 1974 Videotape of a car accident

Eyewitness testimony https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PB2OegI6wvI https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-SBTRLoPuo

Special Topics in Memory Recovered memories Involved the recall of long-forgotten dramatic event May be the result of suggestion Some evidence that memories can be repressed and recalled later

Cultural Influences on Memory Cultural values and practices influence what kinds of things we remember and how easily we recall them