Developmental Theories

Developmental Theories COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHODYNAMIC Originated by Sigmund Freud. Erikson's psychosocial theory is a newer version that believes personality develops through a sequence of stages. LEARNING Behaviorism (Skinner) looks at how consequences affect learning. Social learning theory (Bandura) considers modeling and observation keys to learning. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL Piaget's theory has distinct stages of thinking. Information-processing. theory says thought develops as a person thinks more efficiently. Vygotsky believes that development is influenced by culture.  ECOLOGICAL Bronfenbrenner believes a person is part of a series of interacting systems. Competence-environmental press states adaptation occurs when ability and demands are balanced. LIFE-SPAN Baltes's proposals suggest that development cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework; that aging is a lifelong process of growing up and growing old. LIFE-COURSE This perspective describes ways in which a generation experiences biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development within its historical context. Theories of human development are rooted in the debate about nature versus nurture. Early developmental theorists subscribed strongly to the nature perspective, proposing that the makeup of a person is a function of biology and genetics. As the study of human development evolved, the nurture perspective was given closer scrutiny. Realizing that human development encompasses a number of domains, researchers eventually defined several broad perspectives of human development that continue to influence developmental research today.

Psychodynamic 0-1.5 years 1.5-3 years 3-5 years 5-12 years 12-18 years Oral Trust vs. Mistrust Anal Autonomy vs. Shame Phallic Initiative vs. Guilt Latency Industry vs. Inferiority Sigmund Freud Genital Identity vs. Role Confusion Psychodynamic theories originated with the work of Sigmund Freud, who held that development was driven by innate biological needs through five phases from birth to puberty. The psychodynamic piece comes into play with the interaction of unconscious processes, driven by biological needs, which resolve certain types of crises at different ages. According to Freud, it is these conflict resolutions in childhood that are essential to how one deals with adulthood later in life. Erik Erikson took this model a few steps further, believing that these crisis resolutions (Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development) continued past puberty across the lifespan, with the biological and genetic origins of behavior interacting directly with one’s social environment. Although significantly evolved from early days, psychodynamic theories continue to influence the study of human development today. Intimacy vs. Isolation Generativity vs. Stagnation Integrity vs. Despair Erik Erikson

Learning Behaviorism Behaviors develop as a result of learned consequences (positive or negative). Stimulus/response Baby is hungry→gets bottle→ unpleasant reflux→does not want to eat B. F. Skinner Social Learning Behaviors develop by watching or modeling others The learning theory perspective emphasizes development as a function of learned behaviors, either through a punishment/reward system (Skinner’s behaviorism theory), or through observing and modeling others (Bandura’s social learning theory). Learning theories do not necessarily offer a single model of development, nor do they propose specific stages like psychodynamic or cognitive theories. What learning theories offer is an alternative view that doesn’t require a stage-wise or sequential process to development, or something based upon an innate phenomenon. Learning theories also help to address the question “What is it that keeps behavior evolving in an individual?” There may be biological factors and cognitive factors which cannot usefully be explained in terms of learned connections. But learning theory can be very useful in understanding the influence of the external environment in shaping our behaviors. Baby sees mom eat and express happiness, baby eats too Albert Bandura

Quiz slide—drag each item into the correct category (these are correctly categorized, make each bullet point a separate draggable item) Sigmund Freud Erik Erikson B. F. Skinner Albert Bandura Theory states that people learn by watching others. Experience gives people a sense of self-efficacy. People look to others to determine appropriate behavior. Theory consists of five stages. Last stage ends when person reaches age 18. Development driven by biological needs. Theory consists of eight stages. Last stage occurs when person reaches age 65. Developmental stages are characterized by challenges people face. Theory describes how consequences determine behaviors. Reinforcement makes a behavior more likely to occur again. Punishment suppresses a behavior.

Cognitive Developmental Nurture emphasis Requires social interactions Learning drives development Varies between cultures Requires adult interaction Nature emphasis Independent exploration Development drives learning Universal to all cultures Requires peer interaction Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget While psychodynamic theories emphasize the affective, or feeling, domain, cognitive theories focus on thinking processes and how these change over time. Jean Piaget was the classic cognitive theorist. Piaget believed that life begins with a small repertoire of simple sensory or motor schemas such as tasting, touching, seeing, and hearing. Through this exploration, mental processes evolve to help an individual make meaning of their world and adapt to their environment. For example, an infant utilizes his senses of touch, taste, and hearing to assimilate their immediate environment. As the infant grows into a young child, cognitive processes expand to allow the child to better understand his own world, but only from his perspective. As mental structures become more organized in childhood, one begins to make associations and differentiations between himself and others using concrete concepts such as time, space, and numbers. Finally, as children reach adolescence, the ability to think abstractly begins to develop, and a child can form new ideas and support them with logic without the prior experience. Four distinct stages: Sensorimotor 0-2 Preoperational 2-6 Concrete Operational 7-13 Formal operational 13 + No stages, occurs continuously

Ecological Bronfenbrenner Lawton & Nahemow Development depends on interactive environmental systems People within systems influence development Multiple system interactions=optimal development Lawton & Nahemow Development depends on interaction between environment and abilities Environmental demands influence development Balanced ability & demands=optimal development Ecological theories probably carry the strongest emphasis on the environmental influences that shape development. Ecological theories are perhaps the most blended when it comes to nature versus nurture. In fact, ecological theory may best be considered “nature is nurture,” because of the emphasis on the complex interconnectedness of human development and the environmental contexts in which that occurs. Genes have influence on the environments we experience, and a person’s environment can directly change the level at which certain genes are expressed. One cannot be separated from the other.

Life-Span “Catch-all” for human development Development is life-long Development involves both gains and losses Plasticity at all ages Influence of biopsychosocial forces sift across the lifespan Strong historical and cultural influences Many of the aforementioned theories pay little attention to development in adulthood. However, we know that developmental tasks and changes do occur throughout adulthood until death. Lifespan theories provide a framework for understanding human aging, an important part of life span development. This provides context for describing and explaining the regular transformations that occur with time in the physical, cognitive, and socioemotional domains in adulthood.

Life-Course 6 tenets of life course theory Sociohistorical/geographical location- development is embedded in historical and geographical contexts in which a person lives Timing of lives- in chronological, generational, and historical time Heterogeneity- diversity in development due to cultural factors Linked lives- development is influenced by connections with others Human agency- individuals are active agents in making decisions that shape development The past shapes the future- early decisions and development can affect later outcomes The life course perspective is a relatively new paradigm in developmental theory. Unlike most other developmental theories, transitions in the life course perspective are not closely tied to a sequence of age. This perspective recognizes that life events and roles do not necessarily proceed in a given sequence but rather are tied to historical, social, and cultural contexts, and can vary across generations. For example, those born in the baby boomer age were likely to experience developmental transitions at different times in their lives than those born in the millenial age. Like lifespan theories, the life course perspective provides context for analyzing the many developmental transitions that occur in adulthood.

Quiz – drag each item to the matching theorist Quiz – drag each item to the matching theorist. Separate the name and theory into draggable items Piaget – Theory proposes four stages of cognitive development during which people try to understand the world. Vygotsky – Believed that development must be considered within each person’s sociocultural context. Bronfenbrenner – Proposed that developing person is embedded within a series of four complex and interactive systems. Lawton & Nahemow - According to this theory, people adapt most effectively when there is a good match between their abilities and environmental demands. Life-Course – Major life changes occur at different ages across generations; domains of people’s lives are highly interdependent. Life-Span – Human development is multiply determined and cannot be explained within a single framework.

Summary NATURE NURTURE Piaget Vygotsky Erikson Freud Life Course Maslow Piaget Lawton Vygotsky Erikson Freud Life Course Life Span Skinner Separate theories of development are able to argue their own distinct view on why people develop in specific ways. On closer examination, it becomes clear that no single theory can fully explain the whole of human growth and development. Human development is best understood through the integration of numerous theories. Continue to consider these theories to help you grasp development concepts as we dive in to each of the life stages. Bandura Bronfenbrenner