Environmental lapse rate = 4°C/km 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Environmental lapse rate = 4°C/km Dry adiabatic lapse rate 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) Dry adiabatic lapse rate 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Moist adiabatic lapse rate 3000 Environmental lapse rate = 4°C/km 2000 Height above the ground (m) Dry adiabatic lapse rate 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Absolutely stable 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Absolutely stable warming aloft cooling near-sfc. 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) and/or cooling near-sfc. 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Dry adiabatic lapse rate Moist adiabatic lapse rate Environmental 3000 Moist adiabatic lapse rate Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 Environmental lapse rate = 11°C/km -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

3000 Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

3000 Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

3000 Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

3000 Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

3000 Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

3000 Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

Absolutely unstable Dry adiabatic lapse rate Moist adiabatic 3000 Moist adiabatic lapse rate Height above the ground (m) 2000 1000 Environmental lapse rate = 11°C/km -5 5 10 15 20 25 30 Temperature (°C)

Absolutely unstable cooling aloft warming near-sfc. 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) and/or 1000 warming near-sfc. 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Environmental lapse rate = 8°C/km Moist adiabatic lapse rate 3000 Moist adiabatic lapse rate 2000 Height above the ground (m) Dry adiabatic lapse rate 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Conditionally unstable Environmental lapse rate = 8°C/km 3000 Moist adiabatic lapse rate 2000 Height above the ground (m) Dry adiabatic lapse rate 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Conditionally unstable Dew point 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Conditionally unstable Dew point 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) lifting condensation level 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Conditionally unstable Dew point 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) lifting condensation level 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Conditionally unstable 3000 level of free convection 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

Conditionally unstable 3000 2000 Height above the ground (m) 1000 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Temperature (°C)

FIGURE 5.8 The primary ways clouds form: (a) surface heating and convection Fig. 5-8a, p.118

FIGURE 5.8 The primary ways clouds form: (b) forced lifting along topographic barriers Fig. 5-8b, p.118

FIGURE 5.12 Orographic uplift, cloud development, and the formation of a rain shadow. Fig. 5-12, p.120

FIGURE 5.13 The formation of lenticular clouds. Fig. 5-13, p.120

FIGURE 5.8 The primary ways clouds form:(c) convergence of surface air Fig. 5-8c, p.118

FIGURE 5.8 The primary ways clouds form: (d) forced lifting along weather fronts. Fig. 5-8d, p.118

FIGURE 5.8 The primary ways clouds form: (a) surface heating and convection; (b) forced lifting along topographic barriers;(c) convergence of surface air; (d) forced lifting along weather fronts. Fig. 5-8, p.118

FIGURE 5.15 Relative sizes of raindrops, cloud droplets, and condensation nuclei. Fig. 5-15, p.121

FIGURE 5. 16 Collision and coalescence FIGURE 5.16 Collision and coalescence. (a) In a warm cloud composed only of small cloud droplets of uniform size, the droplets are less likely to collide as they all fall very slowly at about the same speed. Those droplets that do collide, frequently do not coalesce because of the strong surface tension that holds together each tiny droplet. (b) In a cloud composed of different size droplets, larger droplets fall faster than smaller droplets. Although some tiny droplets are swept aside, some collect on the larger droplet’s forward edge, while others (captured in the wake of the larger droplet) coalesce on the droplet’s backside. Fig. 5-16, p.122

FIGURE 5.17 A cloud droplet rising then falling through a warm cumulus cloud can grow by collision and coalescence and emerge from the cloud as a large raindrop. Fig. 5-17, p.123

FIGURE 5.18 The distribution of ice and water in a cumulonimbus cloud. Fig. 5-18, p.123

FIGURE 5.19 In a saturated environment, the water droplet and the ice crystal are in equilibrium, as the number of molecules leaving the surface of each droplet and ice crystal equals the number returning. The greater number of vapor molecules above the liquid indicates, however, that the saturation vapor pressure over water is greater than it is over ice. Fig. 5-19, p.124

FIGURE 4.5 Saturation vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature. At a temperature of 10°C, the saturation vapor pressure is about 12 mb, whereas at 30°C it is about 42 mb. The insert illustrates that the saturation vapor pressure over water is greater than the saturation vapor pressure over ice. Fig. 4-5, p.81

FIGURE 2.2 Heat energy absorbed and released. Fig. 2-2, p.28

620 cal/g 80 cal/g 540 cal/g 80 cal/g 540 cal/g 620 cal/g FIGURE 2.2 Heat energy absorbed and released. 620 cal/g Fig. 2-2, p.28

FIGURE 5. 20 The ice-crystal process FIGURE 5.20 The ice-crystal process. The greater number of water vapor molecules around the liquid droplets causes water molecules to diffuse from the liquid drops toward the ice crystals. The ice crystals absorb the water vapor and grow larger, while the water droplets grow smaller. Fig. 5-20, p.125

FIGURE 5.21 Ice particles in clouds. Fig. 5-21, p.125