PSYCG1560 Cognition and Affective Processes

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Presentation transcript:

PSYCG1560 Cognition and Affective Processes Theories of Learning PSYCG1560 Cognition and Affective Processes

Learning is: 1. “a persisting change in human performance or performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment” (Driscoll, 1994, pp. 8-9). 2. “the relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior due to experience” (Mayer, 1982, p. 1040). 3. “an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (Shuell, 1986, p. 412).

Non-Associative Implicit Memory Withdraws it’s gill when squirted with water Electric shock after squirting water - withdrawel response becomes stronger Aplysia (Sea Snail) Habituation

We connect events that occur in sequence Association We connect events that occur in sequence Why does Dentist = Pain?

Behaviorism Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors

Behaviorism Types of Learning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Observation John B. Watson “Forget the mind…” Psychology should based on observable behavior Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Short Biography 20 years studying digestive system 30 years studying learning 1904 Nobel Prize in Medicine Noticed that dogs would drool in anticipation of food. What were dogs thinking or feeling?

Classical Conditioning What were dogs thinking or feeling? Pointless! Ivan Pavlov Examine the phenomenon more objectively using Experiments!

Classical Conditioning Terms Unconditioned Response Unconditioned Stimulus Conditioned Response Conditioned Stimulus UCR - drool in response to food (not learned) UCS - food (triggers drool reflex) CR - drool in response to sound of bell (learned) CS - sound of bell (triggers drool reflex)

Five Major Conditioning Processes Acquisition - initial learning of the response (Is Before better than After?) Extinction - decrease in CR without CS Spontaneous Recovery - reappearance of the CR after some time period Generalization - tendency to respond to similar CS (e.g., a similar sounding bell) Discrimination - learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli

Applications of Classical Conditioning Is human behavior nothing more than a bunch of conditioned behaviors? Case of “Little Albert” UCS Loud Noise CS White Rat UCR Fear CR John Watson

Better Applications of Classical Conditioning Rats Snakes Enclosed Places Open Places Dirt Walrus Treatment of Phobias

Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning - associating different stimuli that the organism does not control Operant Conditioning - associating your behavior with its’ consequences (e.g., teaching a child to say “Please”) Using Operant Conditioning, individuals are more likely to repeat rewarded behaviors

B. F. Skinner External influences, not internal thoughts Skinner elaborated on Thorndike’s Law of Effect “Rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur” B. F. Skinner E. L. Thorndike External influences, not internal thoughts & feelings, govern behavior.

Principles of Reinforcement Reinforcer - any event that increases the frequency of the preceding event Negative Reinforcers Remove (-) stimulus (e.g., electric shock) Positive Reinforcers Introduce (+) stimulus (e.g., food) Reinforcers ALWAYS strengthen behavior!

More Reinforcement Primary Reinforcers Secondary Reinforcers Innately satisfying, Not learned (e.g., getting food) Secondary Reinforcers Associated with primary reinforcers & learned (e.g., praise)

Still More Reinforcement Immediate Reinforcement Reinforce immediately preceding behavior (e.g., nicotine) Delayed Reinforcement Reinforcement at some point after behavior occurs (e.g., paychecks)

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous - every time behavior occurs (rare) or Partial - not every time behavior occurs (learning is slower but more resistant to extinction)

Behavior-Based Reinforcers Fixed Ratio - reinforce every n responses Variable Ratio - reinforce after ?? responses Behavior-Based Reinforcers Fixed Interval - reinforce after fixed time Variable Interval - reinforce after ?? time Time-Based Reinforcers

Punishment Problems With Punishment Opposite of Reinforcement Attempts to decrease behavior by introducing an unpleasant punisher Problems With Punishment Behavior is not forgotten - merely suppressed (may reappear in other situations) P does not guide toward acceptable behavior (doesn’t tell you what you should do)

Critiques of Behaviorism Does not account for processes taking place in the mind that cannot be observed Advocates for passive student learning in a teacher-centric environment One size fits all Knowledge itself is given and absolute Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing

Is There No Cognition? Can we think? Do we think? Cognitive Maps Rats can learn maze even without reinforcement Cognitive Maps Cog Map rats perform as well as Reinforced rats

Cognitivism Grew in response to Behaviorism Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols Learning is the process of connecting symbols in a meaningful & memorable way Studies focused on the mental processes that facilitate symbol connection Grew in response to Behaviorism in an effort to better understand the mental processes behind learning

Key Principles: Cognitivism Learning is a change of knowledge state Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process Emphasis is on the building blocks of knowledge (e.g. identifing prerequisite relationships of content) Emphasis on structuring, organizign and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing

Cognitive Learning Theory Discovery Learning - Jerome Bruner Meaningful Verbal Learning - David Ausubel

Cognitive Learning Theory Discovery Learning Anybody can learn anything at any age, provided it is stated in terms they can understand. Transfer to many different situations Only possible through Discovery Learning Confront the learner with problems and help them find solutions. Do not present sequenced materials.

Cognitive Learning Theory Meaningful Verbal Learning Advance Organizers: New material is presented in a systematic way, and is connected to existing cognitive structures in a meaningful way. New material is related to something they already know!

Cognitive Learning Theory Meaningful Verbal Learning When learners have difficulty with new material, go back to the concrete anchors (Advance Organizers). Provide a Discovery approach, and they’ll learn. .

Critiques of Cognitivism Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and absolute Input – Process – Output model is mechanistic and deterministic Does not account enough for individuality Little emphasis on affective characteristics Does not account enough for individuality and differences in staged development Little emphasis on affective characteristics, especially motivation

Social Learning Theory (SLT) Grew out of Cognitivism A. Bandura (1973) Learning takes place through observation and sensorial experiences Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery SLT is the basis of the movement against violence in media & video games Imitation: Individuals adopt the modeled behavior more readily and completely if the person they are observing is admired by the observer We more readily model behavior if it results in outcomes we value or approve of

Learning By Observation Albert Bandura & the Bobo doll Both (+) and (-) actions can be learned by observing others

Social Learning Theory Learning From Models - Albert Bandura 1. Attend to pertinent clues 2. Code for memory (store a visual image) 3. Retain in memory 4. Accurately reproduce the observed activity 5. Possess sufficient motivation to apply new learning

Social Learning Theory Research indicates that the following factors influence the strength of learning from models: 1. How much power the model seems to have 2. How capable the model seems to be 3. How nurturing (caring) the model seems to be 4. How similar the learner perceives self and model 5. How many models the learner observes

Social Learning Theory Four interrelated processes establish and strengthen identification with the model: 1. Children want to be like the model 2. Children believe they are like the model 3. Children experience emotions like those the model is feeling. 4. Children act like the model.

Social Learning Theory Through identification, children come to believe they have the same characteristics as the model. When they identify with a nurturant and competent model, children feel pleased and proud. When they identify with an inadequate model, children feel unhappy and insecure.

Critiques of Social Learning Theory Does not take into account individuality, context, and experience as mediating factors Suggests students learn best as passive receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed to being active learners Emotions and motivation not considered important or connected to learning Think of a laboratory environment, for instance. What’s more effective in your estimation…watching the faculty member conduct the lab, or you doing it yourself?

Social Constructivism Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framed around metacognition Knowledge is actively constructed Learning is… A search for meaning by the learner Contextualized An inherently social activity Dialogic and recursive The responsibility of the learner Lev Vygotsky Social Learning Zone of Proximal Development Knowledge is actively constructed by individuals in light of and in relation to our past experiences, the context of learning, personal motivation, and our beliefs/attitudes/prior knowledge Think of the lab…instead of just watching it being done, the student acts as the active agent conducting the lab, with expert support leading them to the edge of their knowledge and beyond. Dialogic: central focus is on written & spoken dialogue Recursive: new learning is built upon prior learning…scaffolding

Constructivism Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions Knowledge is embedded in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistic settings) Create novel and situation-specific understandings by "assembling" knowledge from diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge)

Critiques of Social Constructivism Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute Often seen as less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters Suggests that knowledge is neither given nor absolute, but is rather an individual construct Does not fit well with traditional age grouping and rigid terms/semesters that do not provide a flexible timeframe for learning

Multiple Intelligences (MI) Grew out of Constructivism, framed around metacognition H. Gardner (1983 to present) All people are born with eight intelligences: Enables students to leverage their strengths and purposefully target and develop their weaknesses 1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical 2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist 3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal 4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal Metacognition – simply put is learning about learning, but more realistically, it’s about kn owing who you are as a learner, and developing the capacity to leverage your strengths to your advantage while purposefully addressing your weaknesses

Critiques of MI Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular and methodological approach has any discernable impact on learning Suggestive of a departure from core curricula and standards

Brain-Based Learning (BBL) Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen 12 governing principles 1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception 2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes 3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory 4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks 5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat 6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique

Critiques of BBL Research conducted by neuroscientists, not teachers & educational researchers Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes “brain-based” learning questionable Individual principles have been scientifically questioned Individual principles have been scientifically questioned (left/right brain laterality)

Questions? Thoughts?