Unintentional Meaning Nayuta Miki (JSPS Fellow/Nihon University) Workshop: What is (a) language? What is Meaning / Nihon university Dec. 18. 2014

Today’s Plan The problem of “speaker meaning” Intention-based semantics (IBS) What is wrong about IBS? New approach: Belief-evidence view 2014/12/18

Speaker meaning (Grice 1958; 1968; 1969; Schiffer 1973) Speaker Meaning: S means that p by uttering x x p 2014/12/18

Examples of Speaker Meaning “I don’t believe John is an earthling!” John is a genius!! 2014/12/18

Examples of Speaker Meaning [waving a hand] I’m not going to the party. 2014/12/18

The Problem of Speaker meaning What is the sufficient and necessary condition of speaker meaning? 2014/12/18

Intention-based semantic account IBS(Grice, Schiffer, Harman(?), Neale, Davis, ……): The speaker’s having a particular intention gives the condition of speaker meaning. 2014/12/18

S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending ……p ……. IBS Account S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending ……p ……. x p x p 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (1): Grice (1958) S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending an audience A to believe that p, A to recognize that S intends (1), and A’s recognition of S’s intention (1) is a reason for A to believe that p. M-Intending an audience to believe that p 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (1): grice (1958) S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x M-intending an audience to believe that p x p x p 2014/12/18

IBS theories (1): Grice (1958) “I don’t believe John is an earthling!” John is a genius!! 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (1): Grice (1958) “I don’t believe John is an earthling!” John is a genius! 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (2): grice (1968; 1969) Simplified S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x M-intending an audience A to believe that p without an intention to deceive A. 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (3): Schiffer (1973) simplified S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending an audience A and S to mutually know that S M-intends A to believe that p. 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (3): Schiffer (1973) Simplified A and B mutually know that p Iff A knows that p, B knows that p, A knows that B knows that p, B knows that A knows that p, A knows that B knows that A knows that p, …… 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (3): Schiffer(1973) S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending an audience and herself to mutually know that S intends A to believe p x p x p 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (4): Harman (1974) Revised S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending an audience A to believe that p by virtue of A’s recognition of this very intention 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (4): Harman (1974) S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending an audience to believe p by virtue of his recognition of this very intention x p x p 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (5): Davis (2002) (Derived from his definitions) S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending her utterance of x to indicate that S believes that p causal or statistical relation 2014/12/18

IBS Theories (5): Davis (2002) (derived from his definitions) S means that p by uttering x iff S utters x intending her utterance to indicate that S believes that p x p x p 2014/12/18

A common assumption of IBS Theories x p Grice Schiffer x p x p Harman Davis Intention to make p explicit 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS? Does the speaker must have such an intention in order to mean something? 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 1 Joseph found a treasure in a dense forest. The leader of a criminal group caught and put a lie-detector on him. He said “This machine will explode and kill you if you lie. Where’s the treasure?” 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 1 Joseph hoped to hide the place from the leader, but does not want to die. He said “a place where a big family of green giants live”, thinking this expression to be a metaphorical paraphrase of the description of the place. 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 1 “The place where a big family of green giants live” The treasure is in the dense forest. But, Joseph intended not to make the proposition explicit. 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 1 Grice Schiffer Harman Davis ? Meaning without the corresponding Intentions? 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 2 George tends to give a right answer unconsciously (if he knows it) whenever he is asked a question while he is concentrating on something. One day, he stole a wallet from one of his colleagues named Marissa. After that, he started to read a book, which happened to be interesting to him, and soon he got to concentrate on it. Marissa found her wallet disappeared and ask him “did you take my wallet?” 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 2 Without any consideration and in fact even unconsciously, George said “Yes, I did.” 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 2 “Yes, I did” George stole the wallet from her. But, George was not even aware what he said or meant. 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS?: Example 2 Grice Schiffer Harman Davis Meaning without the corresponding Intentions!! 2014/12/18

IBS has overlooked the flexibility of a speaker’s psychology. What is wrong about IBS? The motivation of a speaker’s utterance can be varied from context to context. IBS wrongly supposes it always to be a particular kind of intention. IBS has overlooked the flexibility of a speaker’s psychology. 2014/12/18

What is wrong about IBS? A speaker’s background psychology can be various! 2014/12/18

Belief-evidence semantics But, then, what is it for a speaker to mean something if not uttering with a particular intention? 2014/12/18

Belief-evidence semantics When a speaker means something, her utterance gives evidence of her belief. 2014/12/18

Belief-Evidence semantics “The place where a big family of green giants live” The treasure is in the dense forest. Joseph must believe that the treasure is in the dense forest to produce this utterance 2014/12/18

Belief-evidence semantics “Yes, I did” George stole the wallet from her. George must believe that he stole it to produce this utterance 2014/12/18

Belief-evidence semantics evidence relation = abductive consequence relation 2014/12/18

Belief-Evidence semantics Peirce’s (1903) abduction: A surprising fact A is observed. If B were true, A would be a matter of course. Therefore, B is true. 2014/12/18

Belief-Evidence semantics A speaker utters x. If she believes that p (and has some other relevant mental states), then her utterance of x is a matter of course. Therefore, she believes that p (and has the other relevant mental states). The speaker means that p by uttering x. 2014/12/18

Belief-evidence semantics x evidence p p 2014/12/18

Conclusion IBS: a certain intention to make the proposition explicit. Examples of meaning without such an intention. Meaning as evidence of belief 2014/12/18