The Hierarchical Structure of English Vowel Systems William Labov, University of Pennsylvania PLM 2010

The argument for a hierarchical architecture of subsets of English vowels The binary notation that defines subsets is consistent with the basic phonotactic condition on all English vowels. The study of chain shifts in progress shows that the consequences of changes in the inventory of a subset are confined to members of that subset. The directions of chain shifting are governed by the dialect-specific development of peripherality in a given subset of vowels.

The argument for a hierarchical architecture of subsets of English vowels The binary notation that defines subsets is consistent with the basic phonotactic condition on all English vowels. The study of chain shifts in progress shows that the consequences of changes in the inventory of a subset are confined to members of that subset. The directions of chain shifting are governed by the dialect-specific development of peripherality in a given subset of vowels.

Representations of English vowels iɪeɛæɑɔʌoʊu FLEECE KIT FACE DRESS TRAP LOT THOUGHT STRUT GOAT FOOT GOOSE PRICE MOUTH CHOICE Long Short Long and ingliding Upgliding Front upgliding Back upgliding i u e ʌ æ o iy ey oy ay iw uw ow aw ih uh eh oh æh ah oh æh ah aiawoy r-less

The basic phonotactic condition (BPC) English words cannot end with a stressed vowel

THE PHONOTACTICS OF ENGLISH VOWELS LONG VOWELS heat hate height quote hoot heed hayed hide hoed who’d he hay high hoe who SHORT VOWELS pit pet pat pot putt put bid bead bad bod bud hood *[pɪ] *[pɛ] *[pæ] *[po] *[pʌ] *[pʊ]

Hierarchical subsystems of English vowels: length is defined independently of phonetic realization Short Long V Upgliding Long and ingliding Vh Front upgliding Back upgliding Vy Vw

Front Back Front Central Back /ɪ/ /ʊ/ /i/ /u/ /e/ /ʌ/ /e/ /ɜ˞/ /o/ Phonemes of American English in broad IPA notation. (Kurath 1977: 18-19) Checked Free Front Back Front Central Back /ɪ/ /ʊ/ /i/ /u/ /e/ /ʌ/ /e/ /ɜ˞/ /o/ /æ/ /ɑ/ /ɔ/ Diphthongs /ai/ /au/ /oi/ Subsystems of English vowels. Since so much of the logic of chain shifting involves movements out of and into subsystems, our notation must characterize these subsystems in a coherent and systematic manner. The notation must typically used by dialect geographers for American English is actually a form of broad IPA which has little relationship to the principles needed to account for chain shifting

see sue say so saw sigh sow soy Transcribing American English phonemes in broad IPA notation does not reflect the BPC Checked Free Front Back Front Central Back /ɪ/ /ʊ/ /i/ /u/ /e/ /ʌ/ /e/ /ɜ˞/ /o/ /æ/ /ɑ/ /ɔ/ Diphthongs /ai/ /au/ /oi/ see sue say so saw sigh sow soy Subsystems of English vowels. Since so much of the logic of chain shifting involves movements out of and into subsystems, our notation must characterize these subsystems in a coherent and systematic manner. The notation must typically used by dialect geographers for American English is actually a form of broad IPA which has little relationship to the principles needed to account for chain shifting (Kurath 1977: 18-19)

Binary notation for the word classes of North American English These are the subsystems of vowels within which the chain shifts take place The binary notation recognized by most linguists is here developed as four sub-systems: the short vowels, the front upgliding vowels, the back upgliding vowels, and the much smaller set (in r-pronouncing dialects) of long and ingliding vowels. Principles of maximal dispersion, maintenance of margins of security operate only within these subsystems. Studies of misunderstandings in spontaneous speech show that they occur primarily within these sub-systems. This represents the initial position for the description of sound changes in North American English. The labels in these cells refer to historical word classes. bit put beat suit boot bet but bait quoit boat bought bat pot bite bout halve pa,father KIT FOOT GOOSE DRESS STRUT FACE CHOICE GOAT THOUGHT TRAP LOT PRICE MOUTH PALM

The argument for a hierarchical architecture of subsets of English vowels The binary notation that defines subsets is consistent with the basic phonotactic condition on all English vowels. The study of chain shifts in progress shows that the consequences of changes in the inventory of a subset are confined to members of that subset. The directions of chain shifting are governed by the dialect-specific development of peripherality in a given subset of vowels.

The triggering of chain shifts in North American English dialects The merger of /o/ in cot, hock, don with /oh/ in caught, hawk, dawn

Formation of the /oh/ class O.E. oht though, daughter, brought wall, wharf, ward, walrus Mod. E. wal/r O.E. aw thaw,straw, claw O.E. ag maw,saw, draw ɔ: M.E. au O.E. eah <- ah fought, taught O.F. a + u brawn, pawn Mod.E. o M.E. av hawk, laundry O.F. au applaud, fraud, because off, lost, toss, cloth, on, wrong, song, dog (hog, fog, moral, coral,long, song, wrong, strong O.F. am, an lawn, spawn

Minimal pairs contrasting /o/ and /oh/ cot caught rot wrought hock hawk cock caulk cod cawed odd awed Don dawn pond pawned Sol Saul collar caller holler hauler knotty naughty odd ability audibility

The merger of /o/ and /oh/ in cot and caught, etc. (ANAE Map 9.1) Canada E.N.E. The West W. Pa.

Canadian shift in the vowel system of Marsha M., Montreal

The Canadian shift: mean values for ANAE Canadian subjects [N=29] vs The Canadian shift: mean values for ANAE Canadian subjects [N=29] vs. all others [N=410]

The Canadian shift nested in the low back merger (ANAE Map 11.7) Low back merger isogloss 18

The Canadian Shift Short Long ingliding i u e ʌ æ o oh æh ah iy ey oy ay iw uw ow aw Front upgliding Back upgliding

The Pittsburgh Shift Short Long ingliding i u e ʌ æ o oh æh ah iy ey oy ay iw uw ow aw Front upgliding Back upgliding

The Pittsburgh Shift in the vowel system of Henry K The Pittsburgh Shift in the vowel system of Henry K., 64, 61 [1996], TS 544

The Pittsburgh Shift: Mean values of low vowels for 20 dialects. PI = Pittsburgh WPA = Western Pennsylvania CA = Canada PR = Providence; IS = Inland South M = Midland; N = Inland North.

The Canadian Shift across subsystems Long and ingliding vowels Short vowels /oh/ /e/ /o/ /æ/ The logic of the chain shifting is illustrated in this diagram. The merger is a collapse of a short vowel /o/ in COT with the long and ingliding vowel /oh/ in CAUGHT. To which subsystem do we assign the collapsed vowel? The decision is again dictated by the phonological facts. While the original short-o was a checked vowel, which cannot occur in stressed word-final position, the merged vowel occurs in free as well as checked position: that is, the vowel of COT is now an allophone of the vowel of CAW. The short vowels then re-adjust automatically to achieve maximal dispersion.

The Pittsburgh Shift across subsystems Long and ingliding vowels Short vowels /oh/ /e/ /o/ /æ/ The logic of the chain shifting is again clear: the merger of /o/ and /oh/ represents a migration of short /o/ into the long and ingliding vowels. The short vowel system reacts to this loss not by a backing of /æ/, as in Canada, but instead it is wedge that moves into the vacant position.

Forks in the road after the low back merger /u/ /e/ / / /oh/ /æ/ /o/ The logic of the chain shifting is illustrated in this diagram. The merger is a collapse of a short vowel /o/ in COT with tje long and ingliding vowel /oh/. in CAUGHT. Tp which subsystem do we assign the collapsed vowel? The decision is dictated by the phonological facts. While the original short-o was a checked vowel, which cannot occur in stressed word-final position, the merged vowel occurs in free as well as checked position: that is, the vowel of cot is now an allophone of the vowel of caw.

The shift of /o/ to /oh/ has consequences only for other members of the short vowel subsystem

Binary notation for the word classes of North American English These are the subsystems of vowels within which the chain shifts take place The binary notation recognized by most linguists is here developed as four sub-systems: the short vowels, the front upgliding vowels, the back upgliding vowels, and the much smaller set (in r-pronouncing dialects) of long and ingliding vowels. Principles of maximal dispersion, maintenance of margins of security operate only within these subsystems. Studies of misunderstandings in spontaneous speech show that they occur primarily within these sub-systems. This represents the initial position for the description of sound changes in North American English. The labels in these cells refer to historical word classes. bit put beat suit boot bet but bait quoit boat bought bat pot bite bout halve pa,father KIT FOOT GOOSE DRESS STRUT FACE CHOICE GOAT THOUGHT TRAP LOT PRICE MOUTH PALM

Distinctive features of American English vowels Short = 1 mora Long = 2 morae

The argument for a hierarchical architecture of subsets of English vowels The binary notation that defines subsets is consistent with the basic phonotactic condition on all English vowels. The study of chain shifts in progress shows that the consequences of changes in the inventory of a subset are confined to members of that subset. The directions of chain shifting are governed by the dialect-specific development of peripherality in a given subset of vowels.

General principles of chain shifting In chain shifts, I. Long vowels rise. II. Short nuclei fall. II. Back nuclei shift to the front. --Labov, Yaeger & Steiner 1972

Principle I Principle II Principle III Attested Instances of the general Principles of Chain Shifting in Completed Changes Principle I Principle II Principle III raising of (a) lowering of (b) lowering of fronting of long vowels short vowels diphthongal nuclei back vowels English North Frisian English Yiddish German Vegliote Yiddish [Central] Swedish Yiddish Yiddish [Western] North Frisian Swedish Swedish Romansh Frisian North Frisian French Portuguese Romansch Lettish Swiss French Vegliote Greek Romansh Czech Albanian Greek Lettish Akha Lithuanian Korean Celtic Old Prussian Albanian Lappish Syriac Akha Celtic Aramaic Red = non-Indo-European

Cross-Dialectal Comprehension Gating Experiment: Birmingham Word Phrase Sentence 1. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 2. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 3. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 4. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 5. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 6. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 7. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 8. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 9. _________ ________________ ___________________________ 10. ________ ________________ ___________________________ Cross-Dialectal Comprehension Gating Experiment: Birmingham

The Southern Shift (Southern U. S.) Short Long ingliding hit, kids i u e ʌ æ o oh æh ah set, bed Danny iy ey oy ay iw uw ow aw beatin’ grade Guy wipin’ Front upgliding Back upgliding

Notation for the word classes of North American English without distinctive rounding (PLC 3) These are the subsystems of vowels within which the chain shifts take place The binary notation recognized by most linguists is here developed as four sub-systems: the short vowels, the front upgliding vowels, the back upgliding vowels, and the much smaller set (in r-pronouncing dialects) of long and ingliding vowels. Principles of maximal dispersion, maintenance of margins of security operate only within these subsystems. Studies of misunderstandings in spontaneous speech show that they occur primarily within these sub-systems. This represents the initial position for the description of sound changes in North American English. The labels in these cells refer to historical word classes.

Development of front inglidimg vowels with the Southern Shift These are the subsystems of vowels within which the chain shifts take place The binary notation recognized by most linguists is here developed as four sub-systems: the short vowels, the front upgliding vowels, the back upgliding vowels, and the much smaller set (in r-pronouncing dialects) of long and ingliding vowels. Principles of maximal dispersion, maintenance of margins of security operate only within these subsystems. Studies of misunderstandings in spontaneous speech show that they occur primarily within these sub-systems. This represents the initial position for the description of sound changes in North American English. The labels in these cells refer to historical word classes. ih eh

The Southern Shift (So. England, Australia) Short Long ingliding i u e ʌ æ o oh æh ah iy ey oy ay iw uw ow aw Front upgliding Back upgliding

In the Southern Shift, long vowels fall and short vowels rise The study of current changes in progress indicate that the dimension determining the direction of chain shifts is not length but distance from the outer envelope of phonological space (peripherality).

Phonological space with peripheral and nonperipheral tracks

General principles of chain shifting (2) In chain shifts, I. Tense nuclei rise along a peripheral track II. Lax nuclei fall along a non-peripheral track

General principles of chain shifting (3) In chain shifts, I. Peripheral nuclei rise. II. Nonperipheral nuclei fall.

The Canadian shift bit

Specification of peripherality for Canada Short = 1 mora peripheral - - - - - - Long = 2 morae peripheral + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + - + - + -

Pattern 1 vowel shifting in West Germanic phonological space (the English Great Vowel shift, Middle High German shift, etc.)

The Southern Shift hit kids beatin’ set bed Danny grade Guy wipin’

The Pittsburgh Shift

Mean values of 14 vowels for 21 North American dialects

The peripherality frame for the normalized ANAE data

Insertion of vowel subsystems into West Germanic phonological space

Tuw iy Kuw ey oy u i æh ow oh e ʌ æ ah o ay

Interpretation of peripherality frame in Stampe/Donegan dimensions

F2 l F1

The Southern Shift in the peripherality framework

IS IS PI CA

Automatic vowel measurement of 7,101 vowels over 50 msec in 57 minute interview with Jean M., 60, Philadelphia [2006]

Mean vowels with primary stress of Jean M.

Nonperipheral track defined by mean short vowels and peripheral track defined by Vh long and ingliding vowels

Back chain shift before /r/ for Jean M. four car

/ey/ in checked syllables for Jean M., Philadelphia

/ey/ in final position for Jean M., Philadelphia

31 tokens of SAY spoken by Jean M., Philadelphia

Three vowels from the Southern Shift of Birmingham

Lowering of /ey/ along the nonperipheral track for 137 tokens of /ey/ in the Southern Shift of Wendy P., Birmingham

Specification of peripherality for the South Short = 1 mora peripheral + + + - - - Long = 2 morae peripheral - + - + + + + + + + + + - + + + + - + - + -

The hierarchical structure of the English vowel system as seen through the study of change in progress All English vowel systems are governed by the basic phonotactic condition, which distinguishes long vowels from short vowels by the license to occur in final stressed position. For the majority of English dialects which have developed diphthongization of long mid and high vowels. a binary analysis of long vowels is governed by the generalization that no word ends in a stressed vowel. The vocalic chain shifts in current North American English have been initiated by the migration of a member of one subset into another, largely into the set of long and ingliding vowels. The chain shifts that follow show the tendency to maximum dispersion within the subsets defined as short, front upgliding, back upgliding and long or ingliding vowels. The different directions of unidirectional chain shifting are determined by whether the nuclei of a given subsystem are located on the peripheral or nonperipheral track as defined for high and mid vowels.

The hierarchical structure of the English vowel system as seen through the study of change in progress (2) Peripherality does not appear to be defined for low vowels in current West Germanic vowel space. Some low vowels are differentiated by duration, though it has been found that duration contrasts are less stable than other phonetic dimensions (Chen and Wang 1975, Labov and Baranowski 2006) In the history of English, low vowels show bidirectional movement with alternate fronting and backing. This may be a precondition for the development of dialect divergence in vowel systems (PLC3 Ch. 8).

References Chen, Matthew and William S.-Y. Wang 1975. Sound Change: actuation and implementation. Language 51:255-81. Labov, William, Malcah Yaeger & Richard Steiner 1972. A Quantitative Study of Sound Change in Progress. Philadelphia: U. S. Regional Survey. Labov, William and Maciej Baranowski 2006. 50 msec. Language Variation and Change 18:223-240. Labov, William 2010. Principles of Linguistic Change, Vol. 3: Cognitive and cultural factors. Oxford: Wiley/Blackwell.