Arguments, arguments, and more arguments Arguments, arguments, and more arguments!: A primer on philosophical method Kareem Khalifa What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Philosophy is critical thinking Critical thinking is recognizing, analyzing, and criticizing arguments Recognizing arguments: identifying premises and conclusions Analyzing arguments: stating how the premises make the conclusion likely Criticizing arguments: identifying potentially false premises or weak connections between premise and conclusion What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Recognizing arguments All arguments have premises and conclusions Find the conclusion first; that’s the main point of any argument Conclusion-indicators: thus, therefore, hence, so, then, it follows that Premise-indicators: since, because, due to, it follows from What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Are these arguments? String theory says that all aspects of our universe -- the particles that make up matter and the forces that act on those particles -- consist of tiny strings of energy. A theory is scientific only if it is empirically testable. String theory is not empirically testable. So string theory is not a scientific theory. What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Analyzing arguments How do the premises support the conclusion? Premises must make a conclusion more plausible, probable, likely Different ways to do this, but look for important logical operators, e.g., or, but, only, if…then, necessarily, possibly, all, some, etc. What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Analyze this! If a theory is scientific then it is empirically testable. String theory is not empirically testable. So string theory is not a scientific theory. What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Analyze this! If a theory is scientific then it is empirically testable. String theory is not empirically testable. So string theory is not a scientific theory. If p then q. It is not the case that q. So it is not the case that p. What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Criticizing arguments Two ways: 1) Find a false premise 2) Show that the conclusion does not follow from premise, i.e., there are cases when premises are true and conclusion is false. What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Criticize this! A theory is scientific only if it is empirically testable. String theory is not empirically testable. So string theory is not a scientific theory. What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Criticize this! A theory is scientific only if it is empirically testable. String theory is not empirically testable. So string theory is not a scientific theory. Criticism: String theory may be empirically testable. We may not currently know of any empirical tests for string theory, but this doesn’t mean that no such tests exist. What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Applications in Reading Understanding non-fiction just is reconstructing the author’s argument When you’re stumped: recognize and analyze Entertain different interpretations—which provides the most convincing argument? What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Applications in Writing Make sure you have an argument Use premise-indicators, conclusion-indicators, and logical operators to make the structure of your argument clear Make sure you have only an argument Avoid fluff and extraneous language Avoid digressions and tangents—Ask yourself how each sentence is necessary for your argument We will spend time discussing good writing strategies What this class is all about 4/8/2019

Critical thinking matters You may forget what Descartes said, but don’t forget about critical thinking An effective way of avoiding deceptive (though frequently persuasive) rhetoric Important in nearly every facet of life What this class is all about 4/8/2019