Early developments in Sociology Comte Coined the term in 1839 Positivism: Science of society Durkheim Founded the first Sociology department in 1895 First academic journal in 1898 Weber Created an influential journal – Archives for social science and social welfare Chicago US first sociology department in 1895 C W Mills- 1959 “Sociological Imagination” Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Important Sociologists H. Martineau Karl Marx H. Spencer This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA George Simmel – German scholar who took anti-positivist stance George Herbert Mead – Symbolic interactionism Max Weber – interpretive Sociology Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Sociology, Eleventh Edition

The Sociological Imagination At the “heart of sociology” is the sociological perspective, which offers a unique view of society Term coined by C. Wright Mills. Transforms personal problems into public issues. A critical quality of mind that helps people “to use information and to develop reason in order to achieve lucid summations of what is going on in the world and of what may be happening within themselves” (Mills). The understanding that social outcomes are shaped by social context, social actors, and social actions.

Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Sociology, Eleventh Edition Poverty and Obesity in the U.S. by James A. Levine. Diabetes 2011 Nov; 60(11). Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Understanding Social context and how it shapes individual and society This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Sociology, Eleventh Edition This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

Theoretical Perspectives Theory – Explain different aspects of social interaction Generate hypothesis Durkheim’s study pf suicide - How social Solidarity (ties within a group) influences Suicide. Explanation – Social integration Sociology, Eleventh Edition This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

Sociological Perspectives Sociologists look to one or more theoretical approaches to formulate theory. Theoretical Approach (or Paradigm) - a set of fundamental assumptions that guides thinking 3 Major Sociological Paradigms Structural-Functional Social-Conflict Symbolic-Interaction Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Structural –Functional Paradigm S-F Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability Points to social structure, any relatively stable pattern of social behavior Examples: Families, the Workplace, Education

Sociology, Eleventh Edition This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Structural Functionalism Looks for each SS’s social functions, the consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society as a whole All social patterns function to tie people together and to keep society going in its present form Macro-Level Orientation – a broad focus on social structures that shape society a whole Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Who’s Who in S-F? Auguste Comte Emile Durkheim Herbert Spencer Pointed out the need to keep society unified when traditions were breaking down rapidly. Emile Durkheim Helped establish sociology as a university discipline. Herbert Spencer Compared society to the human body (the organic approach). Talcott Parsons Sought to identify tasks that every society must perform. Robert K. Merton Pointed out that social structures all have many functions, some more obvious than others. Distinguished between: Manifest & Latent Functions Dysfunctions (-)

Merton on Functions Manifest Functions – the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern Latent Functions – the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern Example: Higher Education Manifest Functions? Provide information and skills people need to hold jobs. Latent Functions? Marriage Brokering Limiting Unemployment

Sociology, Eleventh Edition Merton on Functions But not all the effects of social structure are good… Social Dysfunction – any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society Examples? Increasing Income Inequality Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Social-Conflict Paradigm Social-Conflict Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and change Highlights how factors such as class, race, ethnicity, gender, and age are linked to inequality in terms of money, power, education, and social prestige Rejects the S-F idea that social structure promotes the operation of society as a whole, focusing instead on how any social pattern benefits some people while hurting others

Social-Conflict Paradigm S-C theorists look at ongoing conflict between dominant and disadvantaged categories of people. People on top try to protect their privileges while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves. Example: Higher Education Schooling reproduces class inequality from one generation to the next by “tracking” students into either college prep or vocational courses. Many sociologists use S-C analysis to help reduce inequality. Macro-Level Orientation Who’s Who?: Karl Marx - Emphasized the importance of social class in inequality and social conflict.

The Gender-Conflict Approach Gender-Conflict Approach – a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between women and men Closely linked to feminism, support for social equality for women and men. Importance lies in making us aware of how society places men in positions of power over women. Examples: Home  Men = Head of Household Workplace  Men = More Income & Powerful Positions Mass Media  Women = Sexualized

The Race-Conflict Approach Race-Conflict Approach – a point of view that focuses on inequality and conflict between people of different racial and ethnic categories Importance lies in making us aware of how society places select groups in positions of power over minorities.

Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm Symbolic-Interaction Approach – a framework for building theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals Micro-Level Orientation – a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situations

Sociology, Eleventh Edition Symbolic Interaction Sees society as nothing more than the reality that people construct for themselves as they interact with one another. We live in a word of symbols and we attach meaning to virtually all of these. Example: Words, Wink, Flag Therefore we create reality as we define our surroundings, decide what we think of others, and shape our own identities. Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Who’s Who in S-I? Max Weber (Doesn’t really fit in any one paradigm.) Taught us to understand a setting from the actor’s point of view George Herbert Mead Examined how personalities develop from social experience. Erving Goffman Creator of dramaturgical analysis, which describes how we resemble actors on a stage as we play out our various roles.

Critical Evaluation Structural-Functional Social-Conflict Too broad. Ignores inequalities of social class, race & gender. Focuses on stability at the expense of conflict. Social-Conflict Ignores how shared values and mutual interdependence unify society. Pursues political goals. Symbolic-Interaction Ignores larger social structures. Ignores the effects of culture. Ignores factors such as class, gender & race

False Division This is a false division. The fullest understanding of our social world comes from using all the paradigms. Sociologists rarely identify with just one paradigm. May change from project-to-project. May change over the course of their career. May combine multiple paradigms.

Applying the Paradigms: Sports Functions of Sports S-F approach looks at the ways in which sports help society operate. What are the functions of sports? Manifest – providing recreation, a means of getting in physical shape, harmless way to let off steam Latent – building social relationships, creating jobs, encouraging competition and the pursuit of success (both American ideals) Dysfunctional – recruiting to college based on athletic ability instead of academic prowess

Applying the Paradigms: Sports Sports and Conflict S-C analysis of sports points out that the games people play reflect their social standing. Income, Gender, Race Also points out that sports are a big business that provides big profits for a small number of people.

Sociology, Eleventh Edition Sports as Interaction Sports as Interaction Views sporting events as complex, face-to-face interactions. Guided by Rules But people are still spontaneous and unpredictable. Sports are seen as an ongoing process rather than a system. Each player understands and interprets the game a little differently. The behavior of any single player may change overtime. Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Research Methods

Applied and Clinical Sociology Social Policy Example – Northeast Florida Center for Community Initiatives Homeless Census and surveys Magnolia project in Underprivileged areas of Jacksonville Florida Medical Sociology – How healthcare professional deal with disease Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Sociology, Eleventh Edition Palliative and Supportive Care, Volume 14, Issue 4 August 2016, pp. 330-340 Use of a values inventory as a discussion aid about end-of-life care: A pilot randomized controlled trial Shailaja Menon (a1) (a2), Laurence B. McCullough (a3), Rebecca J. Beyth (a4), Marvella E. Ford (a5), Donna Espadas (a1) (a2) and Ursula K. Braun (a1) (a6) Abstract: We examined the utility of a brief values inventory as a discussion aid to elicit patients' values and goals for end-of-life (EoL) care during audiotaped outpatient physician–patient encounters. Sociology, Eleventh Edition

Frameworks for Investigation Scientific/Positivist Sociology: the study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior Relies on empirical evidence, which is information we can verify with our senses. Interpretive Sociology: the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world

Positivist Sociology Positivist Sociology - the study of society based on scientific observation of social behavior Main Question: How does society work? Concepts, Variables, and Measurement Concept – a mental construct that represents some aspect of the world in a simplified form Examples: Family, Economy, Social Class, Gender Variable – a concept whose values change from case to case Examples: Height, Social Class

Positivist Sociology Reliability & Validity Measurements must be both reliable and valid. Reliability – consistency in measurement Do repeated measurements give the same result each time? Validity – actually measuring what you intend to measure Is your measure actually gathering data on what you are interested in? Objectivity PS calls for researchers to be neutral, objective and value-free.

Limitations of Scientific Sociology Human behavior is too complex to predict precisely any individual’s actions. Findings represent how categories of people typically act The mere presence of the researcher may affect the behavior being studied Hawthorne Effect Social patterns change across time & place Sociologists are part of the world they study, making value-free research difficult.

Interpretive Sociology Interpretive Sociology - the study of society that focuses on the meanings people attach to their social world Major Q: How do people attach meaning to their actions? PS holds close to science and is well-suited for lab research whereas IS does not hold as close to science and is better suited for fieldwork. Quantitative Data – numerical measurements of outward behavior Qualitative Data – researchers’ perceptions of how people understand their world Positivist Sociology Interpretive Sociology Focus: Observable Action Focus: Meaning of Action Reality: Exists “Out There” Reality: Socially Constructed Data: Quantitative Data: Qualitative

Discussion on Research Methods Group activity: 1. Identify a research study – report, journal article – what is this study about? 2. What research methods were used? 3. Did they test any hypothesis? Sociology, Eleventh Edition