Lesson II Morality and psychological development

A/ Egoism vs Altruism Callicles’ challenge: Both among the other animals and in whole cities and races of men, nature shows that this is what justice has been decided to be: that the superior rule the inferior and have a greater share than they.

A/ Egoism vs Altruism Are we moral egoists? Does altruism exist within nature? Is it genuine altruism? What about within human nature? When acting for our own interest, is it always egoism the best strategy? Why ought we act the way nature is?

Joker’s social experiment A/ Egoism vs Altruism Joker’s social experiment

The prisoner’s dilemma A/ Egoism vs Altruism The prisoner’s dilemma Two members of a criminal gang are arrested and imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary confinement with no means of speaking to or exchanging messages with the other. The police admit they don't have enough evidence to convict the pair on the principal charge. They plan to sentence both to a year in prison on a lesser charge. Simultaneously, the police offer each prisoner a bargain. Here's how it goes: If A and B both confess the crime, each of them serves 2 years in prison If A confesses but B denies the crime, A will be set free whereas B will serve 3 years in prison (and vice versa) If A and B both deny the crime, both of them will only serve 1 year in prison

A/ Egoism vs Altruism The prisoner’s dilemma shows that egoism does not always produces the best outcome, some situations require cooperation. The fact that “man is wolf to man” does not entail that society ought to reproduce the natural “war of all against all” as Callicles states. But is this “useful” or “interested” cooperation genuine altruism? Even if our nature is selfish, ought we act selfishly?

A/ Egoism vs Altruism Psychological egoism: each person has but one ultimate aim, her own welfare. Ethical egoism: it is necessary and sufficient for an action to be morally right (that is, “rational”) that it maximizes one’s self interest.

A/ Egoism vs Altruism - Evolutionary altruism: the behavior of an organism is altruistic if it reduces its own fitness while increasing the fitness of one or more organisms. In fact, cooperation and sacrifice are good biological strategies within certain contexts. - Psychological altruism: empathy, an other-oriented emotional reaction to seeing someone suffer, which would incline persons to engage in helping behavior.

A/ Egoism vs Altruism It seems obvious that altruistic behavior (in an evolutionary and psychological sense) exists, but what about the nature of the motivation for the helping behavior? Does morality depend on facts? If altruistic behavior is instinctive, is it “good” in a moral sense, is it genuine moral altruism? - Moral altruism: disinterested giving to others because it is right.

B/ The naturalistic fallacy There is something misguided from the very beginning about wondering whether human nature is egoist or altruistic, or both, because “is” does not logically imply “ought”. This is the naturalistic fallacy: infering evaluative conclusions without at least one evaluative premise. Man is egoist (psychological egoism) does not imply man ought to be egoist (moral egoism). Man is altruist (psychological egoism) does not imply man ought to be altruist (moral altruism). What is then specifically moral? If morality relies on nature, how can there be any moral progress, if the only argument for cooperation is the social contract argument, how can we make sense then of civil disobedience, of a violation of the social contract which nonetheless is fair, is right, is good?

C/ Kolhberg’s theory Heinz’s dilemma A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: “No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the laboratory to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not?

C/ Kolhberg’s theory of moral development The Heinz dilemma shows that there are crucial features of our moral reasoning which enable us to adequately handle dilemmas in which there is a universal consensus about the right thing to do, but not about what makes it right. Kohlberg states that we begin life with an egocentric point of view which may or may not reach superior moral stages which entail an increasingly genuine altruistic or other-regarding moral perspective.

C/ Kolhberg’s theory Level A - Preconventional Stage 1: The stage of punishment and obedience. One’s only reason for doing what is right is to avoid punishment. Others are irrelevant to one except insofar as they have an influence upon one’s well-being. Stage 2: The stage of individual instrumental purpose and exchange. One pursues his own interests while acknowledging that others have interests, and it is deemed right far all individuals to pursue them. One’s only reason to do what is right is to advance one’s own interests. Conflicts are to be resolved through instrumental exchange of services.

C/ Kolhberg’s theory Level B - Conventional Stage 3: The stage of mutual expectations, relationships and conformity. The expectations of others become important, one is able to put oneself into the other’s position. Doing what is right means living up to the expectations of those who are close to one. Stage 4: The stage of social system and conscience maintenance. One is loyal to one’s social institutions. Doing what is right means fulfilling one’s institutional duties and obligations. One does what is right in order to maintain one’s institutions.

C/ Kolhberg’s theory Level C – Postconventional, principled level Stage 5: The stage of prior rights and social contract. There are values and rights (life and liberty) which do not owe their importance to social institutions but must be upheld in any society. Doing what is right means acting in accordance with the values of one’s society because as a rational creature one is obligated to abide by the precepts widely accepted and impartially adhered to. Stage 6: The stage of universal ethical principles. There are universal ethical principles that all should follow, and which take priority over all legal and other institutional obligations. Doing what is right is acting in accordance with these principles. One does what is right because as a rational creature one grasps the validity of these principles and is committed to following them.

C/ Kolhberg’s theory of moral development Stage 1: Heteronomy. Stage 2: Individualism. Stage 3: Interpersonal expectations. Stage 4: Social system and conscience. Stage 5: Social contract. Stage 6: Universal ethical principles.