Research is a process of inquiry Graziano, A.M. & Raulin M.L. 報告人：張哲領 2017/4/25

自我介紹 姓名：張哲領 家鄉：台南 學歷： 成功大學交管系畢業 交大運管所碩一 任維廉老師的學生 興趣： 打桌球、網球 2

Research Methods: A Process of Inquiry Anthony M. Graziano Anthony M. Graziano is Professor Emeritus, Psychology, at the State University of New York, Buffalo. His research and writing has focused primarily on children, youth, and families Michael L. Raulin Mike Raulin was a clinical associate professor at the State University of New York at Buffalo until he moved to Ohio in 2003. Besides his textbook writing, he currently teaches at Youngstown State University and online at the University of Phoenix. 3

Outline Basic assumption of science Observation and inference: facts and constructs Conceptual models in science Inductive and deductive thinking Models and theories in science A model of the research process Summary 4

Basic assumption of science(1/2) An assumption in science is an idea or statement that is tentatively accepted as being true without further examination. Scientists make assumptions that are not yet known to be true, often because the knowledge or procedures for testing the ideas are not yet available. 5

Basic assumption of science(2/2) Several basic assumption about nature and the role of science in understanding nature: 1. A true, physical universe does exist. 2. While there is randomness and thus unpredictability in the universe, it is primarily an orderly system. 3. This real and orderly universe is knowable through human intelligence, particularly through scientific research. 4. Our knowledge of the universe is incomplete because new knowledge can alter current knowledge. Therefore, all knowledge is tentative. 6

Observation and inference: facts and constructs(1/3) Facts are those events that can be directly, empirically observed gestures, small and large muscle activity, social behavior Animal behavior in laboratory and in the natural environment Clients talk about their inner feelings Parents describe their children’s problem behavior Observation is the empirical process of using our senses to recognize and to note factual events. 7

Observation and inference: facts and constructs(2/3) Not facts: not behavioral events and not directly observable memory, emotion ,intelligence, attitude, creativity, humor… We can observed behavior that we believe to be related to those nonobservable events. Example: help Autistic(自閉症) children to reduce their disruptive behavior Fact: disruptive behavior Reduce the intensity and duration of the disruptive behavior, but fail to reduce their frequency Some internal condition happening inside the children 8

Observation and inference: facts and constructs(3/3) The internal condition is not observable. It is inferred, and those inferences are drawn from the observations of behavior-from the facts. Those nonobservable inferred events are all rational ideas that have been constructed by the researcher. They are not facts. The ideas constructed in this way by the researcher are called constructs. The construct are used in further thinking and research as if they do exist and as if they have observable effects. (analogically) Confusing a construct for a fact is a logical error known as reification of a construct. 9

Conceptual models in science Interactive movement is between observations and constructs: Refining constructs from observations and predicting observations from constructs By using the interactive observations and constructs, we had constructed an analogue or model to represent reality. Model can be physical and can be abstract or conceptual models. Characteristics of the models: 1. Models are constructed representations of parts of the real universe 2.Model provide a convenient representation of the complex and mostly unknown reality. 3. Model are uncomplete, tentative, and analogical. 10

Inductive and deductive thinking Holmes had confused two terms (inductive and deductive). Observed some specific clues and inferred(induced) Made the prediction(deduction) When the researcher begins with empirical observations and then infers constructs, she is engaged in inductive reasoning. When the constructs then serve as the basis of making prediction about new, specific observations, she has engaged in deductive thinking. 11

Models and theories in science Theories are carefully constructed from empirical observations, constructs, and inductive and deductive logic. Marx(1963) describes four types of theories used in psychology that vary in the degree to which they emphasize induction and deduction: inductive theory deductive theory functional theory model: less developed than a formal theory (minitheory) A theory is never right or wrong. It is judged by how useful it is in organizing, explaining phenomena, and generating accurate prediction. 12

A model of the research process-phases of research Idea-generating phase: Identify a topic of interest to study. Unsystematic-explanatory research, which occur in early history of a research area Systematic-more advanced levels of the research area Dive right in by reading articles and books… Problem-definition phase: Refine the vague and general idea(s) generated in the previous step into precise question to be studied. Produce one or more posed questions based on well-developed knowledge of previous research and theory as well as on our own thinking The question we ask will control the way we conduct the rest of the research process. 13

A model of the research process-phases of research Procedures design phase: Decide on the specific procedures to be used un the gathering of the data. which observation, under what condition, which method… Only when the plan can stand up to ethical demands do we proceed with the next phase. Observation phase: Using the procedures devised in the previous step, collect your observations from the subjects in your study. The observation phase is central in all science. Data-analysis phase: Analyze the data collected above using appropriate statistical procedures. The choice is determined by the nature of the question and the observational procedure. 14

A model of the research process-phases of research Interpretation phase: Compare your results with the results predicted on the basis of your theory. Do yours results support theory? How the results help answer the research question & how this answer contributes to the knowledge in the field Use inductive reasoning- from specific result of the study back to the generality of the theory Suggest ways to expand or modify the theory to increase its usefulness and accuracy Communication phase: Prepare a written or oral report of your report for publication or presentation to colleagues. Your report should include a description of all of the above steps. include the results, procedures and the rationales Replication is very important. Formal-books and journals Informal-invisible college, a highly interactive network of communication 15

A model of the research process-level of constraint All levels of research are properly scientific when used appropriately and the nature of the question determines the level of constraint used in answering the question. Mistaken belief: in good research, high-powered statistical analyses must always be used. Once the constraint level of the question has been determined, then the remainder of the research process must be carried out at that same level of constraint. Conclusion drawn from well-executed low-constraint research can serve as the starting points for high-constraint questions and research methods. 16

A model of the research process-level of constraint Naturalistic observation: This involves the observation of subjects in their natural environment. The researcher should do nothing to limit or change the environment or the behavior of subjects. Case-study method of observation: This involves moving the subject into a moderately limiting environment, intervening to a slight degree, and observing the subject’s responses. Correlational research: Here the focus is on quantifying the degree of relationship between two variables. The measurement procedures must be carefully defined and precisely followed. 17

A model of the research process-level of constraint Differential research: Here two or more preexisting group of subjects are compared. The setting is usually highly constrained, and the measurement procedures must be carefully defined and precisely followed. Experimental research: Identical to differential research except that the subjects are randomly or in some other way assigned without bias to the various groups or conditions in the study. This is the highest constraint level of research. 18

Summary The researcher employs a process of inductive inference to develop constructs. Using the constructs, the researcher can then make deductive inferences or prediction. Two-dimensional model of the research enterprise: the phases through which each research project progresses the level of constraint that distinguish the severity of the demands made on the information and the procedures used in each project 19