Origin & Development of the US Constitution Module 1.0: Antecedents to the American Founding

Central Political Concepts Politics those things which concern and which are characteristic of ordered communities Justice In politics, what is the right or best use of power, assignment of authority, and direction of government Human nature since political communities are composed of human beings, we must understand something of human nature to order communities according to their proper telos Power The ability and action either of giving order to a community or steering a community. The power to give order to a community is to Rule; the power to steer a community is to Govern Government For the Old Science of Politics, the process of steering a city toward a particular telos Authority any recognized wielder of power Legitimacy who should have power or authority

Plato’s Republic For Plato, the orders of the city reflect the orders of the human soul The human soul shapes the city, and the city shapes the soul A well-ordered soul, therefore, may bring about a well-ordered city Different orders in cities bring about different types of people Some people are better suited to exercise power than others Power, therefore, is best exercised by those who are fit to wield it, i.e. those with well-ordered souls

Plato’s Best City If the highest good is proper to man, then cities must be ordered to lead men to the highest good. The only legitimate ruler, therefore, is the one who seeks the highest good—a lover of wisdom: The Philosopher King Ironically he who seeks the highest good is least of all concerned with the affairs of the city.

The corruption of regimes Philosophical Kingship—the One who knows (and loves) the True, the Good, the Beautiful (contemplates the realm of Eternal Forms) Aristocracy—rule by the “best” in the city Timocracy—rule of honor Oligarchy—rule by the few Democracy—rule by the many Tyranny—rule by the ‘usurper’, usually one For Plato, each of these cities eventually corrupts into the city below it. The best city, the rule of the Philosopher King, yields to the aristocracy when the King dies and there is no equal lover of wisdom to replace him. Those closest to the philosopher king would be the “Best” in the city and form the aristocracy, but since they are not yet lovers of wisdom themselves, they cannot be certain how to maintain the “best” after they are gone. Contests are established to decide the new ‘best’ who are recognized with honors. At first the honors are bestowed on the honorable, and they form the Timocracy once the aristocrats are gone. These timocrats derive their rule from honor, yet eventually honors are confused with honor itself. Are they honored because they are honorable or vice versa? Once honors and honor are switched, the regime collapses into the Oligarchy—rule by the few. The city is divided into the few (oligoi) and the many (demos). The many overpower the few and establish a democracy where everyone seeks to rule. In such cases a demagogue steps forward promising to restore order and thus usurps the democracy, becoming a tyrant.

Aristotle’s Politics Human beings always found in ordered communities Even households are ordered communities Human beings cannot live long in isolation Ergo, man must be political by nature Those who are totally self-sufficient (i.e. they need no human contact of any kind) are either superhuman or subhuman All human beings seek that which they think is good All communities are ordered towards some good

Building Aristotle’s Cities Who Rules? One Few Many For Whose Good? The City’s Good The Rulers’ Good What about the good of the Ruled? What happens if a Ruler rules for the good of the Ruled and ignores his own good?

Virtuous and Defective Cities Who Rules? One Few Many For Whose Good? Monarchy Tyranny ? Aristocracy Oligarchy Democracy

The Mixed Regime The One The Few The Many In Aristotle’s Mixed Regime, Each part of the city both rules and is ruled in turn

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) Political questions emphasize methods over purposes Politics inevitably deals with necessity No man rules but is ruled by need We are all equally self-interested Men cannot to be trusted to be anything but selfish Statecraft requires anticipating necessity One must manipulate appearances to preserve one’s state

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Human beings alike in their nature Human nature best seen in the absence of society self-interested State of Nature so bad, so dangerous that we must leave it to form societies Societies depend on a social contract among its members Terms of Hobbes’ social contract: exchange rights for security Sovereigns established by societies to enforce the social contract Sovereigns superior in power to subjects Sovereigns limited by the needs of the social contract Sovereigns may be replaced when they fail to enforce the social contract.

John Locke (1632-1704) Human beings are alike in their nature Every man a sovereign in the State of Nature State of Nature insecure Societies depend on a social contract under Natural Law Terms of Locke’s Social Contract: share executive power over the Law of Nature to secure life liberty & property Civil Government established to enforce Natural Law where individuals cannot Civil Sovereigns equal to subjects Civil Government limited by Law of Nature and Social Contract Civil Government may be replaced if they violate either of these New Civil governments require consent for legitimacy