Examples of biohybrid actuators based on mammalian and insect self-contractile cells/tissues. Examples of biohybrid actuators based on mammalian and insect self-contractile cells/tissues. (A) Actuators based on cardiomyocytes. (A1) Muscle-powered microdevice based on a muscle bundle self-assembled across two anchors (33). Reproduced from Xi et al. (33) with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd. (A2) Concept and prototype of a bioactuated pump (34). Reprinted from (34) with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry. (A3) Thin elastomeric films with customized functionalities contracted by properly aligned cardiomyocytes (37). Reprinted from (37) with permission from AAAS. (A4) Jellyfish 2D muscle architecture and reverse-engineered medusoid (left), supported by computer simulation (right) (38). Reprinted from (38) with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd. (A5) Multilayer hydrogel sheet impregnated with aligned CNT microelectrodes and seeded with cardiomyocytes (40). Reprinted from (35) with permission from Wiley. (A6) Microcylinders contracted by cardiomyocytes seeded on the non-PEGylated side of the microstructures (41). Reprinted from (41) with permission from Wiley. (A7) Biohybrid swimmer powered by cardiomyocytes cultured on its tail (43). Reprinted from (43) with permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd. (B) Ray fish–mimicking soft robot powered by optogenetically modified cardiomyocytes and controlled through blue light pulses (45). Reprinted from (45) with permission from AAAS. (C) Actuators based on insect self-contractile tissues. (C1) Walking robot powered by insect DVT and operable at room temperature (47). (C2) Microgripper actuated by insect DVT (48). Reprinted from (48) with permission from the Royal Society of Chemistry. Leonardo Ricotti et al. Sci. Robotics 2017;2:eaaq0495 Copyright © 2017 The Authors, some rights reserved; exclusive licensee American Association for the Advancement of Science. No claim to original U.S. Government Works