DEVELOPING EMPIRICAL RESEARCH QUESTIONS

AIM Questions that can only and fully be answered using observations, will be called ‘empirical questions’ Some general guidelines for formulating ‘empirical research questions’ Veel tekst

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH QUESTION IS NOT SIMPLE “Even the mere selection of (…) a question for worthwhile inquiry, is as a rule no mechanical act, but an act of creative mind (…). There is no rule of procedure to describe how the creative mind hits on such a question (…)” (Arnold Brecht)

Too broad TOPIC Relevant Answerable QUESTION

FOUR PIECES OF ADVICE Too broad Context Causal or not? TOPIC Context Causal or not? Variable/units/setting Answerable? Relevant Answerable QUESTION

TWO CONTEXTS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH QUESTIONS Practical problems Political problems Social problems Theoretical questions Puzzles Existing research Both are ‘scientific’, but the aims are different, let us call the first practical and the second academic

What are its causes and consequences? How big is the problem? What are its causes and consequences? Did the selected option have the expected outcome? (outcome evaluation) Problem & need analysis Find & design options Ex ante evaluation of options Choice Implementation Ex post choice evaluation Which options have been used by others? Did we do as planned? (process evaluation) Can we expect an option to work?

A more general or new question? Always: Will your answers be relevant for theory or for practical problems? Question Theory Research design Data collection Data analysis Answers/ Knowledge A better theory? Better technique for analyzing the data? A better test provided by your research design? Teveel tekst, waardoor deze aan de kleine kant is. Animaties staan er nog ivm duidelijkheid presentatie Better test: able to establish temporal precedence or better able to exclude third variables? (And thus a better test of an existing Theory?) Better/more data?

FOUR PIECES OF ADVICE Too broad Context Causal or not? TOPIC Context Causal or not? Variable/units/setting Answerable? Relevant Answerable QUESTION

TWO TYPES OF EMPIRICAL QUESTIONS Description  descriptive questions Causes and effects  explanatory or causal questions Some empirical questions are about …

DESCRIPTIVE OR CASUAL? “Assumed level of knowledge” Exploratory Testing Describing/ application Descriptive Developing variables Testing descriptive expectations Simple descriptions Causal Coming up with causal relationships Testing causal relationships Causal interpretations using theories So, you need a clear understand of what you want to do and test when formulating the question

FOUR PIECES OF ADVICE Too broad Context Causal or not? TOPIC Context Causal or not? Variable/units/setting It is assumed you know the basic ideas of factor analysis Answerable? Relevant Answerable QUESTION

CLEARLY FORMULATED RESEARCH QUESTIONS UTOS: Units Variables (Treatments and Observations) Setting (time and place)

EXAMPLES OF CLEAR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH QUESTIONS Does the level of integration in society affect the amount of criminal behavior among young people (in Western societies)? Does intercultural training affect the extent to which police officers discriminate against ethnic minorities in the Germany?

EXAMPLES OF UNCLEAR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH QUESTIONS Does Russia have an effect on Europe? Does the level of integration in society affect young people (in Western societies)?

FOUR PIECES OF ADVICE Too broad Context Causal or not? TOPIC Context Causal or not? Variable/units/setting It is assumed you know the basic ideas of factor analysis Answerable? Relevant Answerable QUESTION

IS RESEARCH POSSIBLE? Have preliminary answers been developed / tested? No? Are you able to do this yourself? No again? STOP Question Theory Research design Data collection Data analysis Answers/ Knowledge Are you able to analyze the data? Teveel tekst, waardoor deze aan de kleine kant is. Animaties staan er nog ivm duidelijkheid presentatie which allows for checking correlations, time precedence and non-spuriousness possible Are data available? Or can they be collected within the time frame? Is an appropriate design available?

THIS MICROLECTURE Four guidelines when formulating questions that can only be answered using observations: ‘empirical questions’: Context of research (practical or academic) clear? Causal or descriptive? (exploring, testing or application?) Units / Variables/ Setting clear? Answerable? (theory, design and data available?)