SOCIAL THE FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION Governance and Finance EAF 228 Dr. Mohamed

Hierarchy of Educational Control U.S. Constitution (Tenth Amendment) State Constitutions State Legislatures makes laws affecting public schools State Boards of Education set policy affecting public schools Local Boards of Education translate policy to public schools Local Schools

Typical State and Local Educational Governance Structures Citizens Governor State Legislature State Courts State Department of Education State Board of Education Commissioner of Education Citizens Local Board of Education Superintendent

Typical State and Local Educational Governance Structures (continued) Superintendent Assistant Superintendent for Curriculum Assistant Superintendent for Business Assistant Superintendent for Special Services Principal Teachers and Staff Students

Who Controls What? Levels of Educational Power STATE GOVERNMENTS • Levy taxes • License teachers and other educators • Set standards for school attendance, safety, etc. • Outline minimum curricular and graduation standards (sometimes including specific textbooks to be used and competency tests for student graduation and teacher certification) • Regulate the nature and size of local school districts

LOCAL SCHOOL DISTRICTS Who Controls What? Levels of Educational Power (continued) LOCAL SCHOOL DISTRICTS • Implement state regulations and policies • Create and implement local policies and practices for effective school administration • Hire school personnel • Provide needed funds and build appropriate facilities • Fix salaries and working conditions • Translate community needs into educational practice • Initiate additional curriculum, licensing, or other requirements beyond state requirements • Create current and long-range plans for the school district

Federal Budget Source: NEA, based on the 1998 budget.

Public Opinion of Federal Educational Spending Source: Greenberg-Quinlan Research, Inc./The Tarrance Group, January 1998.

Number of School Districts by State, School Year 1997-1998 50 states and DC 14,427 Alabama 127 Alaska 53 Arizona 307 Arkansas 311 California 994 Colorado 176 Connecticut 166 Delaware 19 District of Columbia 1 Florida 67 Georgia 180 Hawaii 1 Idaho 112 Illinois 927 Indiana 292 Iowa 377 Kansas 304 Kentucky 176 Louisiana 66 Maine 227 Maryland 24 Massachusetts 245 Michigan 659 Minnesota 373 Mississippi 152 Source: U.S. Department of Education, May 1999, p. 10.

Number of School Districts by State, School Year 1997-1998 (continued) Missouri 524 Montana 457 Nebraska 624 Nevada 17 New Hampshire 165 New Jersey 581 New Mexico 89 New York 705 North Carolina 117 North Dakota 231 Ohio 611 Oklahoma 549 Oregon 198 Pennsylvania 500 Rhode Island 36 South Carolina 90 South Dakota 173 Tennessee 137 Texas 1042 Utah 40 Vermont 250 Virginia 132 Washington 296 West Virginia 55 Wisconsin 426 Wyoming 48 Source: U.S. Department of Education, May 1999, p. 10.

Community Power Structures, School Boards, and Superintendents Types of School Boards Superintendent Styles 1. Dominated 2. Factional 3. Pluralistic 4. Inert 4. Sanctioning 1. Functionary 2. Political 3. Adviser 4. Decision making

Everything You Always Wanted To Know about School Boards but Never Thought to Ask • The first school board was established in 1721 in Boston. • In the United States, there are almost 15,000 school boards in charge of 52 million students in 87,000 schools. • Three-quarters of the school districts are small, with fewer than 2,500 students in each. • Just 1 percent of the school districts in urban areas enroll 23 percent of all students in the United States. • Eighty-five percent of local school boards are elected. • School board members are typically white (86.9 percent), male (55.3 percent), financially secure (more than half earning above $50,000 and more than a third earning over $80,000), and middle-aged (85 percent being above 41 years of age). • School boards hire superintendents who look much like themselves (96 percent of the superintendents are white, 89 percent are male, 95 percent are married).

School Year Federal State Local 1919–1920 1959–1960 1970–1971 Percentage of Revenues for Elementary and Secondary Schools from Local, State, and Federal Sources for Selected Years, 1919-1920 to 1996-1997 School Year Federal State Local 1919–1920 1959–1960 1970–1971 1980–1981 1984–1985 1991–1992 1992–1993 1996–1997 0.3 16.5 83.2 4.4 39.1 56.5 8.4 39.1 52.5 9.2 47.4 43.4 6.6 48.9 44.4 6.6 46.4 47.0 6.9 45.6 47.4 6.6 48.0 45.4 Source: U. S. Department of Education, 1995, 1999.

The Public Education Dollar: Expenditures by Function, School Year 1996-1997 Source: U. S. Department of Education. June, 1999, p. 5.

Source of Revenue per Student and School District Wealth Source: Condition of Education, 1998.

Sources of Revenue for Public Elementary and Secondary Schools: 1970-71 to 1994-95 Source: U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of State School Systems; Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education; and Common Core of Data surveys.

Current Expenditure per Pupil in Public Elementary and Secondary Schools: 1970-71 to 1996-97 Source: U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Statistics of State School Systems; Revenues and Expenditures for Public Elementary and Secondary Education; and Common Core of Data surveys.

School Resources and Student Achievement Source: Linda Darling-Hammond, “Teachers and Teaching: Testing Policy Hypothesis From a National Commission Report,” Educational Researcher, 27, No 1, Jan-Feb 1998.

Legal Landmarks in Educational Finance • Serrano v. Priest (California, 1971) • San Antonio v. Rodriguez (U.S. Supreme Court, 1973) • Serrano II (California, 1976) • Levittown v. Nyquist (New York, 1982) • Rose and Blandford v. Council for Better Education et al. (Kentucky, 1989) • Edgewood v. Kirby (Texas, 1989) • Abbott v. Burke (New Jersey, 1990) Source: Adapted from Thomas Toch, “Separate but Not Equal,” Agenda 1 (Spring 1991): pp. 15-17.