Giving Evidence and Experimenting Wu-Lin Chen (wlchen@pu.edu.tw) Department of Computer Science and Information Management

Proof or Evidence Proof or evidence is usually the result of observation or experimentation, combined with reasoning.

Using English To Give Evidence Due to some scientific hypotheses’ unprovable nature, evidence is frequently introduced with words like indicates or demonstrates rather than the stronger word proves.

Using English To Give Evidence EX: Smoking is related to many heart and circulatory ailments. Evidence: It has been demonstrated that nicotine increases the rate of the heart… EX: Smoking is the most significant factor in respiratory diseases. Evidence 1: It can damage the tiny hairs (cilia) that line the breathing passages… Evidence 2: Research also confirms that the tar in cigarette smoke is carcinogenic… EX: There is also a correlation between smoking and birth defects. Evidence: The evidence indicates that pregnant women who smoke a pack of cigarettes a day have a greater likelihood of having a miscarriage…

Using English To Give Evidence Evidence is not always marked with a clue word and often can only be identified by the context of the paragraph. EX: Smokers often become physically and psychologically dependent on their habit… Evidence 1: Smokers often…suffer withdrawal symptoms if they attempt to stop. Evidence 2: Even the onset of a smoking-related illness is not always sufficient to enable heavy smokers to quit.

Reasoning Two basic methods to move from evidence to a conclusion Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning

Deductive Reasoning Deductive reasoning moves from a general premise or assumption to a specific conclusion. All metals are good conductors of electricity. Zinc is a metal. Therefore, zinc is a good conductor of electricity. If deductive reasoning is properly stated and if the premises are true, the conclusion will be true. Deductive reasoning can sometimes lead to false conclusions if the premise is false. All students are lazy. Everyone here is a student. Therefore, everyone here is lazy. All gases can flow. All liquids can flow. Therefore, all gases are liquids.

Inductive Reasoning Inductive reasoning moves from a specific observation to a general conclusion. If air is observed to expand or contract to fill any container, the assumption might be made that all gases behave this way. Inductive reasoning can sometimes lead to false conclusions. If a particular mushroom is poisonous, all mushrooms must be poisonous. If the examples are not enough, not representative or nor typical, inductive reasoning can also lead to false conclusions.

Writing Skills Scientific writing requires evidence to support your statements. The more evidence you have and the better is, the stronger your statement or argument will be. Forms of evidence: facts statistics observations test results survey results expert opinion (used carefully)

Experimenting An experiment is a kind of process. A process is a series of acts or operations designed to bring about a desired result. A common form of process in writing is the recipe. Analysis is the systematic division of any complex whole into its component parts, or pieces. Process analysis is the step-by-step explanation of how something happened, how something is made, or how to do something.

Using English to Give Directions Analyze a process by breaking it down into steps or procedures and arranging them in chronological order (i.e. the order which things happen). Give directions by writing a list of steps rather than a paragraph. The imperative form of verb is used. Arrange tiny pieces of paper on a table. Rub a plastic comb with some woolen fabric. Hold the comb over the pieces of paper and observe what happens. (The paper should be attracted to the comb.)

Imperative Verbs When and how to use imperative verbs: give a command or direction; appear at the beginning of a clause; have a subject that is implied, not stated (you); and are formed from the present tense of the verb.

Writing Skills Think through the process in specific details, step by step before writing. Make sure your written directions are clear. Ask yourself whether there are any steps the reader should be warned about in advance. The following guidelines for writing directions: List all the steps in the process. Begin each step with an imperative verb. Arrange the steps in strict chronological order. Keep the sentences fairly short. (Do not put more than one step together.) Include all necessary details, such as specific quantities, measurements, and dates. Check to see that you have not omitted anything or included any unnecessary steps.