Memory: Information Processing

Information Processing Model Encoding - getting information into the memory system Storage - retaining the information over time Retrieval - getting information out of memory storage

Encoding

Two Types of Encoding Automatic Processing Effortful Processing

Automatic Processing unconscious encoding info; without effort Place information (example: remembering where a piece of info is in your textbook, but not remembering what the info is)

Effortful Processing requires attention & a conscious, deliberate effort example: studying for a test

Processing Trends & Strategies How can you use effortful processing to encode school-related information?

Rehearsal repeating information to encode it one of the most important processing strategies

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) did memory studies w/ three-letter nonsense syllables (gnh, auk, loi) conclusion: the more you rehearse, the more you retain developed the forgetting curve (a.k.a. “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”)

Rehearsal and Retention (From Baddeley, 1982)

Overlearning continuing to rehearse after the info has been learned rehearsing past the point of mastery helps ensure info will be available even under stress examples: playing musical pieces, sports

Poodle Tree Dance House Airport Sugar Child Ground Watch Squirrel Truck Building Hospital Pencil Terrace Lamp

Is the word pencil on the list? Is the word poodle on the list? Is the word ground on the list

Serial Position Effect primacy effect – ability to recall info near the beginning of a list recency effect – the ability to recall info near the end of a list

Primacy/Recency Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

Spacing Effect distributed practice - spread rehearsal out in several sessions separated by a period of time massed practice - putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming) distributed practice helps you retain info better than massed practice

Mnemonic Device memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts Example: Peg-word System

Peg-Word System the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized goal: visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

Peg Word System

Mnemonic: Method of Loci person associates items to be remembered with familiar places

Semantic Encoding making the material meaningful encoding info that is meaningful enhances recall make info meaningful by making it relevant to your life How do you make material meaningful? Self-Reference Effect

Encoding Research (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

Storage

Three Storage Systems three distinct storage systems : sensory memory working memory long-term memory

Sensory Memory brief, initial coding of sensory info in the memory system iconic store – visual info (less than ½ second) echoic store – sound info (3 – 4 seconds) info held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

Working Memory holds info briefly before it is stored or forgotten (conscious, activated) holds about seven (+ or – 2) chunks of info at one time (example: phone numbers) can retain info as long as it is rehearsed

Long-Term Memory relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system holds memories w/out conscious effort

How are memories stored? each memory activates a specific pattern of firing in brain cells (neurons) long-term potentiation: as the neurons for a particular memory fire over & over, the synapses become more efficient (release neurotransmitter serotonin)

Storage: Explicit & Implicit Memories

Explicit Memory memory of facts & experiences examples: At what temperature does water freeze? What is your mother’s middle name? What did you eat for dinner last night? must consciously retrieve and declare processed through the hippocampus

Implicit Memory memory of skills & procedures examples: how to walk how to read how to button your shirt retrieved without conscious recollection processed through the cerebellum

Memory and the Hippocampus damage to the hippocampus results in the inability to form new explicit memories the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories remains

Memory and the Hippocampus

Think about this… What would happen if a man who experienced damage to his hippocampus went to play golf on the same course every day? Answer: He would have no explicit memory of the course – it would seem like a brand new place every time. But his scores would gradually improve over time, because his implicit memories would allow him to get better with practice.

Memory and the Brain: How do we get information into long-term memory?

How are memories constructed? memory research says we build memories from bits & pieces of info. when pieces are missing, we invent new ones to fill the spaces

Retrieval

Retrieval two forms of retrieval recall - retrieve information learned earlier examples: essay, fill-in-the-blank, short answer test questions recognition - identify items learned earlier examples: multiple choice & matching test questions

How do we get to memories we need to retrieve? memories are primed (triggered) by retrieval cues the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to learn more about it

Context Effect enhanced ability to retrieve info when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the info

State Dependent Memory retrieval is best when the person is in the same physical & emotional state as when they encoded the info. physical examples: tired, under the influence of caffeine mood examples: happy, depressed

The Brain Documentary: Memory