Content Analysis

One type of unobtrusive research One type of unobtrusive research The analysis of social artifacts, usually communications media The analysis of social artifacts, usually communications media Books, magazines, advertising, TV shows, movies, URLs, legal statutes, paintings, photos, architecture, etc. Books, magazines, advertising, TV shows, movies, URLs, legal statutes, paintings, photos, architecture, etc. Most appropriate for theories about communications, norms, values Most appropriate for theories about communications, norms, values Content Analysis

Sampling in Content Analysis Units of Analysis Units of Analysis Great flexibility in selecting units of observation and analysis Great flexibility in selecting units of observation and analysis Literature: Books, chapters, pages, lines, or words Literature: Books, chapters, pages, lines, or words

Units of Analysis Units of Analysis Great flexibility in selecting units of observation and analysis Great flexibility in selecting units of observation and analysis Literature: Books, chapters, pages, lines, or words Literature: Books, chapters, pages, lines, or words Or, themes, plot, characters, tone, connotation, etc. Or, themes, plot, characters, tone, connotation, etc. Magazines: editions, articles, pages, text, photos, captions, etc. Magazines: editions, articles, pages, text, photos, captions, etc. URLs: pages, frames, sections, etc. URLs: pages, frames, sections, etc. TV shows: days, hours, segments, scenes, etc. TV shows: days, hours, segments, scenes, etc. People: authors, journalists, editors, publishers, artists, etc. People: authors, journalists, editors, publishers, artists, etc. Content Analysis

Sampling Sampling You must specifically define the sampling frame You must specifically define the sampling frame Authors… English? 20 th century? Fiction? Horror? Authors… English? 20 th century? Fiction? Horror? TV shows… Channel(s)? Days of the week? Hours of the day? TV shows… Channel(s)? Days of the week? Hours of the day? Content Analysis

2. Content Analysis 2. Content Analysis Sampling Sampling You must specifically define the sampling frame You must specifically define the sampling frame Authors… English? 20 th century? Fiction? Horror? Authors… English? 20 th century? Fiction? Horror? TV shows… Channel(s)? Days of the week? Hours of the day? TV shows… Channel(s)? Days of the week? Hours of the day? Use EPSEM unless it is necessary to use NPS Use EPSEM unless it is necessary to use NPS It is very helpful to stratify and cluster sample; It is very helpful to stratify and cluster sample; Stratify books by year; magazines by frequency of publication Stratify books by year; magazines by frequency of publication Cluster sample books by authors, magazines by publishers Cluster sample books by authors, magazines by publishers Content Analysis

Sampling Sampling Use EPSEM unless it is necessary to use NPS Use EPSEM unless it is necessary to use NPS It is very helpful to stratify and cluster sample; It is very helpful to stratify and cluster sample; Stratify books by year; magazines by frequency of publication Stratify books by year; magazines by frequency of publication Cluster sample books by authors, magazines by publishers Cluster sample books by authors, magazines by publishers You can use these techniques to sub-sample You can use these techniques to sub-sample Selected chapters in selected books by an author Selected chapters in selected books by an author Content Analysis

Sampling Sampling You can use these techniques to sub-sample You can use these techniques to sub-sample Selected chapters in selected books by an author Selected chapters in selected books by an author You can also sample multiple units of analysis You can also sample multiple units of analysis Sample segments of TV shows AND commercials Sample segments of TV shows AND commercials This allows one to link analysis of shows to commercials This allows one to link analysis of shows to commercials Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Coding – classification or quantification of content Coding – classification or quantification of content Code editorials ordinally as very liberal... to very conservative Code editorials ordinally as very liberal... to very conservative Manifest and/or latent content may be coded… Manifest and/or latent content may be coded… … content may be coded quantitatively or qualitatively … content may be coded quantitatively or qualitatively Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Coding – classification or quantification of content Coding – classification or quantification of content Code editorials ordinally as very liberal... to very conservative Code editorials ordinally as very liberal... to very conservative Manifest and/or latent content may be coded… Manifest and/or latent content may be coded… … content may be coded quantitatively or qualitatively … content may be coded quantitatively or qualitatively Manifest Content Manifest Content Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Manifest Content Manifest Content Explicit or stated content Explicit or stated content Lends itself to quantitative coding and reliable measures Lends itself to quantitative coding and reliable measures Code quantitatively by counting the times a word or phrase is used Code quantitatively by counting the times a word or phrase is used You can also conduct qualitative manifest coding You can also conduct qualitative manifest coding Use nominal codes to categorize the connotation of words or phrases Use nominal codes to categorize the connotation of words or phrases Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Latent Content Latent Content Implicit content; unstated but underlying meaning Implicit content; unstated but underlying meaning Lends itself to qualitative coding and valid measures Lends itself to qualitative coding and valid measures Code qualitatively by categorizing the meaning of passages Code qualitatively by categorizing the meaning of passages You can also code quantitatively You can also code quantitatively Use subjective scores to rate the degree of some quality in a passage (1=lowest, 10=highest) Use subjective scores to rate the degree of some quality in a passage (1=lowest, 10=highest) Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Revising Codes Revising Codes Coding in content analysis allows for dialogue between theory & data Coding in content analysis allows for dialogue between theory & data You can use both deductive and inductive logics You can use both deductive and inductive logics Begin with a theoretical question and key concepts… Begin with a theoretical question and key concepts… … but be ready to revise them as you code data … but be ready to revise them as you code data Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Record Keeping Record Keeping You must have a clear, consistent, justifiable coding system You must have a clear, consistent, justifiable coding system When counting, state what youre including and excluding When counting, state what youre including and excluding When categorizing, state the criteria for making your distinctions When categorizing, state the criteria for making your distinctions Keep a codesheet with all of your codes Keep a codesheet with all of your codes Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Record Keeping Record Keeping You must have a clear, consistent, justifiable coding system You must have a clear, consistent, justifiable coding system When counting, state what youre including and excluding When counting, state what youre including and excluding When categorizing, state the criteria for making your distinctions When categorizing, state the criteria for making your distinctions Keep a codesheet with all of your codes Keep a codesheet with all of your codes If the units of observation and analysis differ, this must be justified If the units of observation and analysis differ, this must be justified Codes refer to units observed; measures refer to units analyzed Codes refer to units observed; measures refer to units analyzed Content Analysis

Coding in Content Analysis Record Keeping Record Keeping For counts, count the total units sample to derive a rate base For counts, count the total units sample to derive a rate base If you count usage of a specific word, count the total words sampled If you count usage of a specific word, count the total words sampled This allows calculation of rates (keywords / 1000 total words) This allows calculation of rates (keywords / 1000 total words) Rates facilitate comparisons to test theory Rates facilitate comparisons to test theory For qualitative analysis in content analysis, see the QLA notes For qualitative analysis in content analysis, see the QLA notes Content Analysis

Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Analysis Strengths Strengths Very flexible units of analysis; lends itself to comparative analysis Very flexible units of analysis; lends itself to comparative analysis Most media are cheap and easy to access Most media are cheap and easy to access Content analysis is easy to replicate Content analysis is easy to replicate Content Analysis Content Analysis

Content Analysis Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Analysis Strengths Strengths Very flexible units of analysis; lends itself to comparative analysis Very flexible units of analysis; lends itself to comparative analysis Most media are cheap and easy to access Most media are cheap and easy to access Content analysis is easy to replicate Content analysis is easy to replicate Weaknesses Weaknesses Media must be recorded somehow to be subject to analysis Media must be recorded somehow to be subject to analysis Some social artifacts may be hard to review Some social artifacts may be hard to review