Theory of Knowledge Human sciences

Guiding questions To what extent are the human sciences reliable? Can human behaviour be subject to laws in the same way as the material world? What constitutes good evidence in the human sciences?

Human sciences In TOK, the term “human sciences” includes many of the subjects in group 3 (individuals and societies) in the Diploma Programme. In simple terms, the human sciences study the reality of being human. More specifically, the human sciences study the social, cultural and biological aspects of human existence. If we add the study of human behaviour to this definition then the Diploma Programme offerings cover a range of human sciences including psychology, social and cultural anthropology, economics and geography.

A fundamental difference between human sciences and natural sciences is in the interpretation of the word “science”. The human sciences might be classified as science because they use the scientific method to test the validity and reliability of hypotheses. However, unlike the natural sciences, the phenomena they try to explain might not possess hard and fast laws that admit no exceptions. They might therefore resort to statistical methods to establish their findings, producing knowledge that is less reliable in terms of issuing predictions.

Introduction

Observation Loaded questions The observer effect Psychology Economics Anthropology

Measurement Causation and correlat Who really won the centennial Olympics?

Experiment The Milgram Experiment

Laws The law of large numbers Trends and laws The complexity of real-world situations Summary: the role of laws in the human sciences

The relationship between natural and human sciences Reductionism Holism The Verstehen position The problem of bias Predictions

Conclusion

The free-will problem Introduction Determinism How does determinism threaten free-will? Does every event have a cause? Is free-will compatible with determinism? Is free-will an illusion? Conclusion

Key points Since human beings seem to be different from other natural phenomena, we may wonder to what extent they can be studied in a purely scientific way Among the problems that arise in trying to get information about other people are that it is difficult to frame questions in a neutral way and that observing people may affect the way they behave Some important phenomena in the human sciences are difficult to measure, and this can make it difficult to study them scientifically Social scientists have devised many ingenious experiments, but ethical considerations limit our ability to conduct experiments on human beings

Although a great deal of human behaviour is predictable, t is unclear how far it can be reduced to lawlike regularities Since we typically explain human behaviour in terms of its meaning and purpose, we may never be able to reduce the human sciences to the natural sciences Since they deal with controversial topics, the human sciences are more prone to bias than the natural sciences, but the extent of the problem should not be exaggerated A question that continues to perplex both scientists and philosophers is how the mental is related to the physical

Scope and applications What is the social function of the human sciences? How many different forms does it encompass (eg sociology, anthropology, economics, politics, etc.)? What are their separate aims? To what extent are human sciences influenced by the society and culture in which they are pursued? How important are the human sciences?

Investigate and understand human behaviour Includes a diverse range of disciplines: anthropology, economics, psychology, sociology,… Some disciplines aim broadly to predict human behaviour (economics, applied sociology)

Concepts and language How do we use language to express the knowledge found within human sciences? To what extent does this differ according to different forms of human sciences? Are there any central concepts for which we need specific language before approaching human sciences?

Key concepts such as opportunity cost in economics Use of mathematical language to suggest intellectual rigour Problems of wording of questionnaires and the difficulty of neutral language

Methodology Which ways of knowing do we use in order to connect with, and understand, human sciences? Which ways of knowing do the human scientists themselves use in order to study human sciences and communicate their understanding of it?

Experimental method Use of questionaires, polls Direct observation of human behaviour Use of models Use of reason to construct plausible theory consistent with other accepted knowledge in the field Some assumptions of human rationality (economics), or lawlike behaviour (psychology) Use of statistical methods – on what basis to choose things like significance levels of tests?

Historical development How has our understanding and perception of human sciences changed over time? How has the role of human sciences within society developed? To what extent has the nature of human sciences (for example, the different forms of human sciences) changed? What relationship do today’s human sciences have with those of the past?

Early views of economics as study of man as a maximizer of utility have been replaced by modern behavioral economics which sees man as essentially irrational and heuristic Early ideas of anthropology as a study in human progress have been replaced post Boaz with less value-laden perspective Freudian psychodynamics have been replaced by a drive towards empirical observation of behaviour in modern functional theories in psychology

Links to personal knowledge To what extent are you involved with human sciences? How is your perception of the world, and your position it in, affected by human sciences?

Understanding of self as a focus of consciousness, as an economic agent or as an individual defined relative to a social background Significant contribution made by individuals in all fields: Smith, Ricardo, Keynes, Friedmann in economics, Boaz in anthopology, Freud, Watson in psychology Modern economics and psychology are more collaborative, although anthropology seems to be more open to individual contributions To what extent is it legitimite for the enquirer to draw upon his/her own experiences as evidence in his/her investigations in the human sciences (the Verstehen approach)? To what extent are personal factors such as gender and age important in the human sciences?

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