Instrumental Case Particles The instrumental case is marked by the particle (u)lo. the shape of the instrumental is lo not only after a vowel, but also following the consonant /l/; the alternate shape ulo follows all other consonants.

several different particles pronounced lo First, lo used with a transitive verb and its object. When the nouns in this pattern are concrete, the noun marked by lo shows the material or ingredients out of which something is made, or the instrument used in the action of the verb:

if the noun marked by lo represents an act of some kind or is an abstract noun, the noun phrase indicates the means or method through which the action of the verb is accomplished.

If the noun that is marked by lo in this pattern is a person, then the meaning expressed by lo is something like ‘qualified to be’

When verbs describing a change in the situation, such as pyen-hata ‘change’, tulenata ‘be revealed’, palkhyecita ‘be disclosed’ are used with lo, the particle marks the result of the change.

The particle lo is also used to mark cause or reason; it is also used in this function in patterns like -lo in-haye ‘by reason of’ and -lo malmiam.a ‘on account of.

lo functions to express a locative.

Comitative Case Particles The basic comitative case marker is wa/kwa. The form of this particle after a vowel is wa, and after a consonant kwa function of kwa is simply to link nouns together, and in this usage it is usually translated as ‘and’.

comitative marker It is also used as a “comitative marker” to show nouns interacting on, harmonizing with, or accompanying each other.

Vocative Case Particles The particle a/ya is used after someone’s personal name in order to call that person. The form of the particle is a after a consonant, and ya after a vowel.

Special Particles Case particles are the postpositional elements used to express case relationships, while special particles add to the semantic content. A special particle can be added to certain noun phrases already marked by a case particle

to The particle to expresses the meaning of inclusiveness

man The particle man means ‘only, the only choice

nun

ina the basic meaning of the particle ina is ‘the only choice’. However, while man is used to express a positive choice that eliminates all other possibilities, ina indicates a passive choice that shows the speaker has chosen what remains after other possibilities have been eliminated

kkaci, cocha, mace their basic meaning of ‘in addition’ and ‘also’ is very close to that of the particle to.

mata The special particle mata means ‘each’.

khenyeng The special particle khenyeng attaches to a noun or a nominalized verb or adjective; it means ‘anything but, far from, on the contrary, not only, contrary to expectations’.