Europe at war’s end Postwar Europe

A paradox and a puzzle Europe experiences destruction on a scale far greater than World War I 60 million dead Large numbers uprooted or displaced Huge swaths of the continent ravaged Cities bombed & destroyed Land ruined Manufacturing and agricultural capacity curtailed…

Nevertheless: Europe manages to emerge from WWII into a half century of relative peace and in some places (the west), unprecedented affluence A continent which had been the epi-centre of two word wars ends up Politically more unified With large areas in which war is unthinkable A large number of countries, now EU member-states How and why was this possible?

Possible explanations: Planning for postwar period Construction of new international institutions New elán Spirit of cooperation among resistance fighters Determination not to go back to dirty ’30s US involvement Cold War & the way in which it defined & limited choices and options

However, Not all wartime plans are implemented or turn out as intended Treatment of Germany very different than originally intended in Morganthau Plan or JCS 1047 UN does not operate as intended New elán & spirit of cooperation often dissipate – both domestically & in international politics Outbreak of Cold War frames different choices & opportunities for visionaries and pragmatics These make a difference

Dealing with Germany Division into occupation zones, but no intention to partition French & Soviet demands for reparations Intent to de-nazify But immediate problem – providing food & shelter not only for local populations but large numbers of people displaced by boundary shifts and ‘ethnic cleansing’ going on in Eastern Europe

Allied powers: Increasingly divided, with Americans & British & to a lesser extent French on one side, Soviets on the other End up providing aid rather than extracting reparations Forced to work through German bureaucracy Unable or unwilling to carry out de-Nazification as thoroughly as planned Nuremberg Trials net a few leaders End up licensing parties in two separate zones and in short order, two Germanies

West Germany British & American & later French zones merged Province re-established, with new boundaries Parties whose leaders were free (or freer) of Nazi connections licensed: Social Democrats (SPD) Christian Democrats (CDU) – built on the base of the Catholic Party (Zentrum) Free Democrats (FDP) Invited to draw up a new constitution End up dominating politics in Federal Republic of Germany through the 1980s

Soviet Zone Increasingly separate – Though free movement via Berlin until construction of Berlin Wall in 1961 Socialists and Communists unified in Socialist Unity Party (SED) Soviet-style party-state system established

Central and Eastern Europe: Territories occupied by Red Army Socialist & Communist Parties encouraged to join in popular front governments Often with Communists in key ministries, e.g. Interior – controlling the police Agriculture – controlling land distribution Unification of Socialists & Communists encouraged -- e.g. Poland, E. Germany.. Opponents marginalized or arrested Sometimes elections rigged… Communist governments entrenched by 1948

Western Europe Where possible, previous systems re-established, governments in exile return politics resumes, albeit with different coalitions in office e.g. Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, Norway… In France & Italy, new constitutions are drafted In both instances, previous regimes discredited and toppled

France 3rd Republic terminated with invasion, occupation, establishment of the Vichy Republic in south Liberation in summer 1944 Collaborators punished Constitutional debate among Resistance forces, especially Communists (27%) Socialists (~25%) MRP (Christian Democrats, also 25%) General De Gaulle – leader of the Free French Army & head of provisional government

The debate: De Gaulle favours a presidential republic: in his view, the French people need a president who can be above politics & formulate what the people want Parties favour a return to a parliamentary or assembly-dominated regime Parties win, at least temporarily: 4th Republic established, with some attempt to provide stronger cabinets De Gaulle resigns & retires from politics Consensus which made a tripartite coalition possible breaks down: Communists expelled from government in 1947 Socialists split with MRP over state support for Catholic schools (early 1950s)

Italy Mussolini toppled in 1943 Germany occupies Liberation in slow degrees, 1943-1945 At war’s end, a new configuration of political forces: RK Church casts its lot with democracy Allows the formation of a Christian Democratic Party Initially, tripartite coalition of Communists, Socialists, and Christian Democrats

1948 Constitution Series of compromises With outbreak of the Cold War position of the Church recognized, along with positive goals – full employment – of Socialists and Communists Explicitly anti-Fascist Yet bureaucracy & judiciary were not purged With outbreak of the Cold War Communists and Socialists leave coalition Italy governed by a series of Christian Democratic-led multiparty coalitions, average duration of one year Communists excluded at national level until 1990s

Netherlands: As elsewhere, war experience facilitates communication among rivals groups & determination to bring about change Break down divisions among Catholics, Calvinists, Socialists -- - historically separate Once war is over, old divisions reassert themselves, but greater willingness to cooperate between Catholics & Socialists…parties ally in postwar reconstruction & building of welfare state

Bottom line: In Western Europe, basis laid for re-establishment of liberal democracy In Central & Eastern Europe, imposition of Communist party-state systems, Division of Europe (Churchill’s iron curtain) facilitates reconstruction, institution-building & politics of affluence which would ensue But economic reconstruction as important as political reconstruction or restoration