Module 2: The Development of Sociology Sociology in Modules Richard T. Schaefer 3rd edition

The Development of Sociology Philosophers/religious authorities of ancient and medieval societies made observations of human behavior European theorists in the 19th century made pioneering contributions to the development of the science of human behavior

Early Thinkers Auguste Comte (1798–1857) Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) Systematic investigation of behavior Coined the term “sociology” Harriet Martineau (1802–1876) Studied social behavior in Britain and the U.S. Emphasized impact of economy, law, trade, health, and population on social problems Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) Controversially proposed “evolution” in society

Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) Behavior must be understood within the larger social context Developed a fundamental thesis to help explain all forms of society Anomie: loss of direction felt in a society when social control of individual behavior becomes ineffective Did not limit interests to one aspect

Max Weber (1864–1920) To comprehend behavior, one must learn the subjective meaning people attach to actions Verstehen: understanding; insight Ideal type: construct for evaluating specific cases Émile Durkheim and Max Weber never met and probably were unaware of each other’s existence

Karl Marx (1818–1883) Society divided between two classes that clash in pursuit of interests Worked with Friedrich Engels The Communist Manifesto Working class should overthrow existing class system Emphasized group identification and associations that influence one’s place in society

W. E. B. DuBois (1868–1963) Among the early Black sociologists struggling for racially egalitarian society Knowledge essential in combating prejudice In-depth studies of urban life Focused on religion at community level Double consciousness: division of individual’s identity into two or more social realities

Twentieth-Century Developments Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) Used sociological perspective to examine face-to-face groups Jane Addams (1860–1935) Combined intellectual inquiry, social service work, and political activism Co-founded Hull House

Twentieth-Century Developments Robert Merton (1910–2003) Combined theory and research Developed dominant theory of deviant behavior Advocated bringing together two approaches: Macrosociology: concentrates on large-scale phenomena or entire civilizations Microsociology: stresses study of small groups, often through experimental means

Twentieth-Century Developments Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002) Capital sustains individuals and families from one generation to the next Cultural capital: noneconomic goods reflected in knowledge of language and arts Social capital: collective benefit of social networks

Figure 2-1: Contributors to Sociology 11