Observational Research CHAPTERS 9 & 10 Observational Research Lecture Outline Quasi-Experimental Research Correlational Research Types of observational research Sampling Creating an effective survey

CHAPTER 9: QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH TRUE EXPERIMENT QUASI-EXPERIMENT Has a manipulation Uses random assignment Can establish causation Uses subject variable Does not use random assignment otherwise Does not establish causation Examples: Nonequivalent groups designs P (subject variable) x E (manipulated variable) factorial designs

CHAPTER 9: QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH TRUE EXPERIMENT QUASI-EXPERIMENT I give a computer-based exam with an application students may choose to open if they want to see the countdown timer on their screen. OR I teach two PSYC3450 lectures; my Monday lecture gets a countdown timer but my Wednesday lecture does not. I want to know if presenting a countdown timer during an exam affects students’ performance. I hold an exam in 2 separate rooms on the same day and at the same time. In one room, there is no countdown timer, in the other, there is. I randomly assign this class’ students to one of the two rooms.

CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH Correlational research seeks to establish relationships between variables (not causation!) Variables must be measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio) Involves no manipulation Correlation coefficient is calculated (Pearson’s r) r can be anywhere from -1 to 1 Magnitude of correlation corresponds to its strength Sign corresponds to its direction (positive or negative) Interpreting a correlation: No causation! The directionality problem The third variable problem

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Describing behaviors in natural settings Observer is unobtrusive, or Habituation assumed e.g., with animal observations (think: Jane Goodall) Examples: Snack selection at movie theaters Gender differences in fighting behaviors at a bar Helping behaviors in a preschool setting

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION Participant observation Experimenter joins group being observed e.g., Festinger’s study of a cult Data recording problems Ethical issues Experimenters changing the group e.g., Rosenhan, David (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179 (4070), 250–258. 

PROBLEMS WITH OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH Challenges to observational methods 01 02 Research Example Absence of control But falsification of strong claims possible Observer bias Use of behavior checklists Interobserver reliability Participant reactivity Use of unobtrusive measures helps Ethics Consent and privacy issues Naturalistic observation in a science museum Consent obtained (unusual in observational research) Results  parents (Dads and Moms) explain science concepts more to their sons than to their daughters

SAMPLING Survey Research Samples vs. populations Biased vs. representative samples Self selection bias Probability sampling vs. Non-probability sampling Probability sampling (Random sampling) Each member of population has equal chance of being selected as member of sample Non-probability sampling has no such requirement

SAMPLING Survey Research Probability sampling Nonprobability sampling Stratified sampling Separate individuals according to some important variable (strata), then randomly sample some individuals from each stratum Cluster sampling Identify natural/convenient clusters Randomly select a cluster of individuals all having some feature in common Example: Wages in Brooklyn Nonprobability sampling Does NOT provide representative samples, but are easier to do Convenience sampling Select subjects who are available and convenient (e.g., Introductory Psychology “subject pool”) Quota sampling Snowball sampling Ask subjects to get their acquaintances to participate Often done with online surveys

CREATING AN EFFECTIVE SURVEY Types of survey questions or statement Open-ended vs. closed questions Use of Likert scales Avoid response bias Be sure to give an appropriate # of units (5-7) Reverse coding Assessing memory and knowledge Moderate use of “don’t know” alternative Adding demographic information Basic identifying data (e.g., age, income) Place at end of survey I am generally a happy person. I am content with my life. I try to look at the bright side. Most often I feel miserable.

CREATING AN EFFECTIVE SURVEY A key problem: survey wording Avoid ambiguity (pilot study helps) Don’t ask for two things in one question: Double-barreled questions Please agree or disagree with the following statement: Cars should be faster and safer. How satisfied are you with your pay and job conditions? Should the government spend less money on the military and more on education? Avoid biased and leading questions College is a stressful place. How would you rate your level of stress? Do you think it’s awful that Congress spends so much money on foreign affairs?

VARIETIES OF SURVEY METHODS Interview Plus  in-person, comprehensive, follow-ups possible Minus  representative samples, cost, logistics, interviewer bias Phone Survey Plus  cost, efficiency Minus  must be brief, response rate, sugging (selling under the guise of research) Electronic Survey Plus  cost, efficiency Minus  sampling issues, ethics