Cells and Tissues

Protein Synthesis Gene—DNA segment that carries a blueprint for building one protein Proteins have many functions Building materials for cells Act as enzymes (biological catalysts) RNA is essential for protein synthesis

Role of RNA Transfer RNA (tRNA) Transfers appropriate amino acids to the ribosome for building the protein Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Helps form the ribosomes where proteins are built Messenger RNA (mRNA) Carries the instructions for building a protein from the nucleus to the ribosome

Transcription and Translation Transfer of information from DNA’s base sequence to the complimentary base sequence of mRNA Three-base sequences on mRNA are called codons

Transcription and Translation Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an amino acid sequence Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins

Nucleus (site of transcription) Cytoplasm (site of translation Protein Synthesis Nucleus (site of transcription) DNA mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and translation begins Synthetase enzyme Amino acids Cytoplasm (site of translation ) Correct amino acid attached to each species of tRNA by an enzyme Growing polypeptide chain Nuclear pore Nuclear membrane mRNA As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a new amino acid is added to the growing protein chain Released tRNA reenters the cytoplasmic pool, ready to be recharged with a new amino acid Direction of ribosome advance; ribosome moves the mRNA strand along sequentially as each codon is read Small ribosomal subunit Portion of mRNA already translated tRNA “head” bearing anticodon Large ribosomal subunit Peptide bond Incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by binding via its anticodon to the codon Codon Ala Phe Ser Gly Met C G U A Figure 3.16

Nucleus (site of transcription) Cytoplasm (site of translation Protein Synthesis Nucleus (site of transcription) DNA mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template Cytoplasm (site of translation ) Nuclear pore Nuclear membrane mRNA Figure 3.16, step 1

Nucleus (site of transcription) Cytoplasm (site of translation Protein Synthesis Nucleus (site of transcription) DNA mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and translation begins Cytoplasm (site of translation ) Nuclear pore Nuclear membrane mRNA Small ribosomal subunit Large ribosomal subunit Codon U G C A Figure 3.16, step 2

Nucleus (site of transcription) Cytoplasm (site of translation Protein Synthesis Nucleus (site of transcription) DNA mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and translation begins Synthetase enzyme Amino acids Cytoplasm (site of translation ) Correct amino acid attached to each species of tRNA by an enzyme Nuclear pore Nuclear membrane mRNA Small ribosomal subunit Large ribosomal subunit Codon U G C A Figure 3.16, step 3

Nucleus (site of transcription) Cytoplasm (site of translation Protein Synthesis Nucleus (site of transcription) DNA mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and translation begins Synthetase enzyme Amino acids Cytoplasm (site of translation ) Correct amino acid attached to each species of tRNA by an enzyme Nuclear pore Nuclear membrane mRNA Small ribosomal subunit tRNA “head” bearing anticodon Large ribosomal subunit Incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by binding via its anticodon to the codon Codon U G C A Figure 3.16, step 4

Nucleus (site of transcription) Cytoplasm (site of translation Protein Synthesis Nucleus (site of transcription) DNA mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and translation begins Synthetase enzyme Amino acids Cytoplasm (site of translation ) Correct amino acid attached to each species of tRNA by an enzyme Growing polypeptide chain Nuclear pore Nuclear membrane mRNA As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a new amino acid is added to the growing protein chain Direction of ribosome advance; ribosome moves the mRNA strand along sequentially as each codon is read Small ribosomal subunit tRNA “head” bearing anticodon Large ribosomal subunit Peptide bond Incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by binding via its anticodon to the codon Codon Ala Phe Ser Gly Met C G U A Figure 3.16, step 5

Nucleus (site of transcription) Cytoplasm (site of translation Protein Synthesis Nucleus (site of transcription) DNA mRNA specifying one polypeptide is made on DNA template mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to ribosome, and translation begins Synthetase enzyme Amino acids Cytoplasm (site of translation ) Correct amino acid attached to each species of tRNA by an enzyme Growing polypeptide chain Nuclear pore Nuclear membrane mRNA As the ribosome moves along the mRNA, a new amino acid is added to the growing protein chain Released tRNA reenters the cytoplasmic pool, ready to be recharged with a new amino acid Direction of ribosome advance; ribosome moves the mRNA strand along sequentially as each codon is read Small ribosomal subunit Portion of mRNA already translated tRNA “head” bearing anticodon Large ribosomal subunit Peptide bond Incoming tRNA recognizes a complementary mRNA codon calling for its amino acid by binding via its anticodon to the codon Codon Ala Phe Ser Gly Met C G U A Figure 3.16, step 6

Body Tissues Tissues Groups of cells with similar structure and function Four primary types Epithelial tissue (epithelium) Connective tissue Muscle tissue Nervous tissue

Epithelial Tissues Locations Body coverings Body linings Glandular tissue Functions Protection Absorption Filtration Secretion

Epithelium Characteristics Cells fit closely together and often form sheets The apical surface is the free surface of the tissue The lower surface of the epithelium rests on a basement membrane Avascular (no blood supply) Regenerate easily if well nourished

Epithelium Characteristics Figure 3.17a

Classification of Epithelia Number of cell layers Simple—one layer Stratified—more than one layer Figure 3.17a

Classification of Epithelia Shape of cells Squamous flattened Cuboidal cube-shaped Columnar column-like Figure 3.17b

Simple Epithelia Simple squamous Single layer of flat cells Usually forms membranes Lines body cavities Lines lungs and capillaries

Simple Epithelia Figure 3.18a

Simple Epithelia Simple cuboidal Single layer of cube-like cells Common in glands and their ducts Forms walls of kidney tubules Covers the ovaries

Simple Epithelia Figure 3.18b

Simple Epithelia Simple columnar Single layer of tall cells Often includes mucus-producing goblet cells Lines digestive tract

Simple Epithelia Figure 3.18c

Simple Epithelia Pseudostratified columnar Single layer, but some cells are shorter than others Often looks like a double layer of cells Sometimes ciliated, such as in the respiratory tract May function in absorption or secretion

Simple Epithelia Figure 3.18d

Stratified Epithelia Stratified squamous Cells at the apical surface are flattened Found as a protective covering where friction is common Locations Skin Mouth Esophagus

Stratified Epithelia Figure 3.18e

Stratified Epithelia Stratified cuboidal—two layers of cuboidal cells Stratified columnar—surface cells are columnar, cells underneath vary in size and shape Stratified cuboidal and columnar Rare in human body Found mainly in ducts of large glands

Stratified Epithelia Transitional epithelium Shape of cells depends upon the amount of stretching Lines organs of the urinary system

Stratified Epithelia Figure 3.18f

Glandular Epithelium Gland One or more cells responsible for secreting a particular product

Glandular Epithelium Two major gland types Endocrine gland Ductless since secretions diffuse into blood vessels All secretions are hormones Exocrine gland Secretions empty through ducts to the epithelial surface Include sweat and oil glands