Chapter 19 – Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia, 1800 – 1900 Empires in Collision Chapter 19 – Europe, the Middle East, and East Asia, 1800 – 1900

China’s Century of Crisis China, to a large degree, was the victim of its own success: - the population grew from about 100 million in 1685 to some 430 million in 1853. - however, China didn’t have an accompanying Industrial Revolution and agricultural production couldn’t keep up. - growing pressure on the land, impoverishment, unemployment, misery, and starvation. The Chinese bureaucracy did not keep pace with the growing population: - central state gradually lost control of provincial officials. - corruption became endemic. - harsh treatment of peasants, particularly taxpayers.

The Crisis Within (Cont’d) Taiping Rebellion 1850–1864: - its leader, Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864), proclaimed himself the younger brother of Jesus, sent to establish a “heavenly kingdom of great peace:” - called for the abolition of private property. - wanted sexually segregated military camps. - the end of patriarchy. - even planned to industrialize China. Taiping forces swept out of southern China and established their capital in Nanjing in 1853: - the rebellion was crushed by 1864.

The Crisis Within (Cont’d) Resolution of the Taiping rebellion consolidated the power of the provincial gentry even more since the provincial leaders defeated the rebels: - intense conservatism thus, China’s problems weren’t resolved. - the massive civil war had seriously weakened the Chinese economy. - 20 to 30 million people died in the rebellion. - took China over a decade to recover.

Western Pressures The Opium Wars displayed the transformation of China’s relationship with Europe: - opium had been used in China for centuries. - British began to sell large quantities of Indian opium. - Chinese authorities recognized the dangers of opium addiction, and tried to stop the trade. - since opium imports were illegal, European merchants bribed officials to smuggle it into China. - in 1836, the emperor decided to suppress the trade. - Commissioner Lin Zexu campaigned against opium use as a “drug czar.” - over three million pounds were seized and destroyed.

Western Pressures (Cont’d) British response led to the first Opium War (1839–1842): - forced the Chinese to accept free trade and “proper” relations among countries. The Treaty of Nanjing (1842): i. China agreed to pay a $21 million indemnity. ii. China ceded Hong Kong; opened more ports. iii. foreigners received the right to live in China under their own laws. iv.  tariffs fixed at a low rate.

Western Pressures (Cont’d) The second Opium War (1856–1858): - Europeans vandalized the imperial Summer Palace. - more treaty ports were opened to foreigners. - China was opened to foreign missionaries. - the Western powers were given the right to patrol some of China’s interior waterways. - foreigners built military bases, railroads, and extracted raw materials. China was also defeated by the French in 1885 and the Japanese in 1895 – Middle Kingdom to “informal empire.” “[u]nequal treaties” inhibited China’s industrialization.

Commissioner Lin Zexu

The Opium Wars Political Cartoon

19th Century China

The Failure of Conservative Modernization The Chinese government tried to act against problems: - efforts made to improve examination system. - restoration of rural social and economic order. - establishment of some modern arsenals and shipyards; some study of other languages and sciences. Unfortunately for the cause of reform, the landowners feared the changes posed by new industries and other forms of commercial modernity. To make matters worse, most modern industries were in the hands of foreigners experts such as engineers and managers.

The Failure of Conservative Modernization (Cont’d) Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901): - anti-foreign militia organizations killed many Europeans and Chinese Christians; besieged foreign embassies in Beijing. - The Western powers and Japan occupied Beijing to crush the rebellion. - They imposed massive reparation payments on China.

The Failure of Conservative Modernization (Cont’d) Organizations were formed to examine the situation and propose reforms. Growing drive for a truly unified nation in which more people took part in public life. Chinese nationalism was against both foreign imperialists and the foreign Qing dynasty. The Qing Dynasty tried to renovate the imperial system, the Hundred Days of Reform (1898), but the program was stopped by conservative forces. In 1911, the ancient imperial system finally collapsed.

The Ottoman Empire Both China and the Ottoman Empire: - felt that they did not need to learn from the West. - avoided direct colonial rule, but were diminished. - attempted “defensive modernization.” - suffered a split in society between modernists and those holding traditional values.

“The Sick Man of Europe” In 1750, the Ottoman Empire was still strong. By 1900, the Ottoman Empire was losing territory: - Ottomans lost territory to Russia, Britain, Austria, and France. - Napoleon’s 1798 invasion of Egypt was especially devastating. - Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Romania had obtained their independence. It was no longer the “the strong sword of Islam.”

“The Sick Man of Europe” (Cont’d) The central Ottoman state had weakened: - provincial authorities and local warlords gained more power, limiting the government’s ability to raise money. - the Janissaries (infantry) had become militarily ineffective. The economy was hit hard by Western developments: - the Europeans achieved direct ocean access to Asia. - cheap European manufactured goods harmed Ottoman artisans, and led to urban riots. - foreign merchants gained exemptions from Ottoman laws and taxes. The Ottoman government came to rely on foreign loans to finance economic development efforts: - Western European countries controlled all of their finances.

Ottoman Contraction

Reform and Its Opponents Ambitious reforms, which were more vigorous than the Chinese: - didn’t have an internal crisis on the scale of China. - didn’t have to deal with explosive population growth. - rulers were Turkic and Muslim, not like foreign Qing. In the late 18th century: Sultan Selim III tried to establish new military and administrative structures: - sent ambassadors to study European methods. - imported European advisers. - established technical schools. - resistance led to Selim’s overthrow and assassination.

Reform and Its Opponents (Cont’d) After 1839, more far-reaching measures (Tanzimat, or reorganization) took shape: - beginning of an extensive process of industrialization and modernization. - acceptance of the principle that all citizens are equal before the law. - challenged the Islamic character of the state. - more Christians attained high office. - growing tide of secular legislation and secular schools based on European models.

Reform and Its Opponents (Cont’d) Supporters of reform saw the Ottoman Empire as a secular state: - reform created a new class of writers, officials, military officers, journalists, etc. – dubbed the “Young Ottomans.” - urged creation of a democratic, constitutional regime. - modernism, accepted technology/science not materialism. Sultan Abd al-Hamid II accepted a new constitution in 1876: - almost immediately suspended it. - turned to decisive autocracy in the face of a Russian invasion. - reactivated the claim that the Ottoman sultans were caliphs and spoke for the whole Islamic world.

Reform and Its Opponents (Cont’d) Opposition coalesced around the “Young Turks” (military and civilian elites): - they advocated for a militantly secular public life. - shift to thinking in terms of a Turkish national state. The Young Turks seized power in a military coup in 1908, pushing the empire towards a unapologetically European path to modernity. They established a radical secularization policy for schools, courts, and law codes. They also opened up schools for women and made divorce easier. Women were also allowed to wear Western dress and polygamy was restricted. Distinction between Muslim and non-Muslim subjects. The Ottoman Empire collapsed following WWI.

Outcomes: Comparing China and the Ottoman Empire By 1900, both were “semi-colonies.” Both gave rise to a new nationalist conception of society. In China, the imperial system collapsed in 1911: a.  followed by a vast revolutionary upheaval. b.  creation of a Communist regime by 1949, within the same territory. The Ottoman Empire, collapsed following World War I: - a new, smaller nation-state of Turkey was created. Chinese revolutionaries rejected Confucian culture much more than Turkish leaders rejected Islam.

The Tokugawa Background Tokugawa shoguns had ruled since about 1600: - main task was preventing civil war among rival feudal lords (the daimyo). - Japan enjoyed internal peace from 1600 to 1850. - the daimyo were strictly regulated, but retained considerable autonomy. - Japan wasn’t unified by a single law, currency, or central authority that reached the local level. - a hierarchical society with samurai at the top, then peasants, artisans, and merchants at the bottom.

The Tokugawa Background (Cont’d) Samurai evolved into a bureaucratic/administrative class. Centuries of peace led to great economic growth, commercialization, and urban development. By 1750, Japan was perhaps the most urbanized country: - 10 percent of population lived in cities or towns. - Edo (Tokyo) had a million residents. High literacy rates (40% of males and 15% of females): - some samurai turned to commerce. - many merchants prospered, providing loans to daimyos. - despite edicts, many peasants moved to cities. Corruption was widespread: - famine in the 1830s led to uprisings by the poor, both rural and urban.

The Tokugawa Period

American Intrusion and the Meiji Restoration The U.S. sent Commodore Perry in 1853: - demanded better treatment for castaways. - right of American ships to refuel and buy provisions. - the opening of trade ports. Japan gave in to Perry’s demands: - the shogun’s capitulation triggered a civil war. By 1868, a group of young samurai from the south took over: - they claimed to be restoring the 15-year-old emperor Meiji to power. - aimed to save Japan from the foreigners by the transformation of Japanese society rather than resistance. The West wasn’t as interested in Japan as it was in China.

The Meiji Restoration

Modernization Japanese Style The first task was creating national unity: - attacked the power and privileges of the daimyo and the samurai. - the central state now collected taxes and raised an army through conscription. - dismantled the Confucian-based social order, almost all Japanese became legally equal subjects. Widespread interest in many aspects of the West, from science to hairstyles: - official missions were sent to the West, hundreds of students studied abroad. - translation of Western books into Japanese.

Modernization Japanese Style (Cont’d) Eventually settled down to more selective borrowing from the West: - combined foreign and Japanese elements, for example, the 1889 constitution with an elected parliament, political parties, and democratic ideals. - in actuality, ultimate power rested with reformers acting on the emperor’s behalf. Feminism and Christianity made little progress. Shinto was raised to the level of a state cult.

Modernization Japanese Style (Cont’d) State-guided industrialization program: - established model factories, built railroads, created postal, telegraph, and banking systems. - many state enterprises were eventually sold to private investors. - by the early 1900s, Japan’s industrialization was organized around large firms called zaibatsu. - became a major exporter of textiles, and produced its own munitions and industrial goods. - accomplished modernization without acquiring foreign debt.

Modernization Japanese Style (Cont’d) Society paid a heavy price through taxation: - many peasant families were impoverished. - countryside suffered infanticide, sale of daughters, and starvation. - early urban workers received harsh treatment. - efforts to organize unions were repressed. - labor movements were crushed. - authorities emphasized theme of service to the state, and ideas of the enterprise as a family.

Japan and the World By the early 20th century, Western powers re-adjusted treaties in Japan’s favor, a goal of the Meiji regime. The Anglo-Japanese Treaty of 1902 recognized Japan as an equal player among the world’s Great Powers. Japanese empire-building enterprise: - successful wars against China (1894–1895) and Russia (1904–1905) established Japan as a military power. - gained colonial control of Taiwan and Korea. - won a foothold in Manchuria. Japan’s rise was widely admired. Colonial policies were more brutal than Europeans.

Japanese Imperialism