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The Human Gas Exchange System consists of the nasal passages, the pharynx or throat, the larynx or voice box, the trachea, the right and left bronchus and the lungs Larynx Trachea (with rings of cartilage) Bronchioles Left lung Ribs Right bronchus Section through ribs Intercostal muscles Diaphragm (a powerful sheet of muscle separating the thorax from the abdomen)

The lungs are contained within the thoracic cavity, the sides of which are bounded by 12 pairs of ribs that articulate (join) with the vertebrae towards the back of the body, and the sternum or breast bone, towards the front The portions of the ribs that articulate with the breastbone are composed of cartilage rather than bone Cartilage Cartilage is softer and more pliable then bone and thus assists the movements of the rib cage during breathing Two sets of antagonistic muscles are located between the ribs – these are the intercostal muscles

Position of the diaphragm This chest X-ray shows the gas-filled lungs within the thoracic cavity Ribs Air-filled lungs Position of the heart Position of the diaphragm

The Trachea Trachea The trachea or windpipe is about 10 cm long and is supported by C-shaped rings of cartilage to prevent the tube from collapsing during breathing The Trachea Air enters the body through the nasal passages and mouth, and passes via the pharynx and larynx to the trachea Trachea The trachea subdivides to give rise to the right and left bronchus – these tubes are also strengthened by cartilage Air is delivered to the alveoli as the trachea branches into bronchi and bronchioles The two bronchi subdivide to form an extensive network of bronchioles that deliver air to the gas exchange surfaces – the alveoli Bronchioles Right and Left bronchus

This photomicrograph of a transverse section through the trachea shows the C-shaped ring of cartilage C-shaped cartilage ring Magnify

This magnified view of the wall of the trachea shows the cartilage cells together with the cells that line the lumen of the trachea – ciliated epithelium Ciliated epithelium Cartilage cells

Lumen of trachea This highly magnified view of the lining of the trachea shows the cilia and mucus-secreting goblet cells that make up the epithelium Goblet cell that secretes mucus to trap dust and other foreign material that may enter the respiratory system The wafting of these cilia removes the mucus and trapped foreign material from the respiratory system

The Gas Exchange Surface A single alveolus Each alveolus is a hollow, thin-walled sac that is surrounded by a dense network of capillaries and is the site of gas exchange in the lungs The bronchioles divide many times forming respiratory bronchioles, which in turn divide to to form alveolar ducts that terminate in groups of sacs – the alveoli Alveolar duct Respiratory bronchioles Alveoli

The Gas Exchange Surface As deoxygenated blood from the body tissues flows through the network of capillaries surrounding each alveolus, oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveolus; oxygenated blood travels from the lungs to the left of the heart for delivery to the body tissues Gases are exchanged across the alveoli by diffusion According to Fick’s Law... Rate of diffusion = surface area x difference in concentration thickness of exchange surface Maximum rate of diffusion of respiratory gases is achieved by: the large surface area presented by the alveoli (there are about 350 million alveoli in the two lungs presenting an enormous surface area of approximately 90 square metres – about the area of a tennis court) the large differences in concentration of metabolites between the alveoli and the blood capillaries the thinness of the diffusion barrier (alveolar and capillary walls provide a total thickness of only 0.005 mm)

The Mechanics of Breathing Breathing in (inspiration) and breathing out (expiration) are mechanical processes involving the ribs, intercostal muscles and the diaphragm Two sets of antagonistic muscles are located between the ribs; these are the external and internal intercostal muscles The intercostal muscles are antagonistic in the sense that contraction of the external muscles raises the rib cage, whereas contraction of the internal muscles lowers the rib cage External intercostal muscles The diaphragm is a powerful sheet of muscle that separates the thorax from the abdomen; it is dome-shaped when relaxed and flattens on contraction Internal intercostal muscles Diaphragm

The Mechanics of Breathing The external and internal intercostal muscles are responsible for the movements of the rib cage during breathing Rib External intercostal muscles Contraction of the external intercostal muscles moves the ribs upwards and outwards during inspiration Internal intercostal muscles During periods of increased activity such as during exercise, the internal intercostal muscles contract to bring out more forceful expirations Relaxation of the external intercostal muscles causes the ribs to move downwards and inwards during expiration at rest Expiration at rest is a passive process; expiration during periods of exercise is an active process involving contraction of the internal intercostal muscles

Inspiration - Breathing In Sternum (breastbone) Vertebral column Rib During an inspiration, the external intercostal muscles contract and raise the rib cage upwards and outwards; the diaphragm also contracts and flattens Diaphragm

Inspiration - Breathing In Sternum (breastbone) Rib Diaphragm The volume of the thorax increases, lowering the air pressure in the chest cavity to less than that of the atmosphere outside During an inspiration, the external intercostal muscles contract and raise the rib cage upwards and outwards; the diaphragm also contracts and flattens A pressure gradient is created between the atmosphere and the lungs, and air rushes in via the trachea to equalise the pressure difference Air moves from a higher to a lower pressure region and inflates the lungs as inspiration takes place

Expiration - Breathing Out During an expiration, the external intercostal muscles relax and lower the rib cage; the diaphragm relaxes and becomes dome-shaped The mechanism described is that for breathing at rest At rest, inspiration is an active process involving contraction of the muscles of breathing The volume of the thorax decreases, raising the air pressure in the chest cavity to above that of the atmosphere outside Expiration is a purely passive process involving relaxation of the muscles of breathing together with elastic recoil of the lungs A pressure gradient is created between the lungs and the atmosphere, and air rushes out via the trachea to equalise the pressure difference Expiration is assisted by the elastic recoil of the lungs following the stretching of elastic fibres during the process of inspiration During forced breathing, as in exercise, expiration becomes an active process Air moves from a higher to a lower pressure region and deflates the lungs as expiration takes place

During periods of increased activity such as exercise, the rate and depth of breathing increases The more forceful, downward and inward movements of the rib cage during expiration of exercise are achieved through the contraction of the internal intercostal muscles As the diaphragm pushes further into the thorax, the volume of the chest cavity decreases more significantly and the increased thoracic pressure aids expiration At the same time, contraction of the abdominal muscles just below the thorax, push the diaphragm into a more domed position During periods of exercise, expiration becomes an active process

Summary Inspiration Expiration External intercostal muscles contract and raise the ribs upwards and outwards External intercostal muscles relax and the ribs move downwards and inwards The diaphragm muscle contracts and flattens The diaphragm muscle relaxes and becomes dome-shaped The volume of the thorax increases The volume of the thorax decreases The air pressure in the thoracic cavity falls below that of the atmospheric air The air pressure in the thoracic cavity rises above that of the atmospheric air Air rushes into the lungs along a pressure gradient Air rushes out of the lungs along a pressure gradient

Pressure Changes During the Breathing Cycle The lungs are sealed in an airtight, fluid-filled, double- membrane sac called the pleura The pressure within the airways of the respiratory system is known as the intrapulmonary pressure Two pleural membranes surround the lungs and the cavity between them is filled with pleural fluid to protect the lungs from the bony ribs Intrapulmonary pressure within the airways The pressure within the pleural cavity is known as the intrapleural pressure and this pressure is always below that of the atmosphere (sub-atmospheric) The magnitude of these pressures varies during the breathing cycle

The pressure and volume changes occurring during the breathing cycle can be represented as a graph where zero, on the pressure axis, represents atmospheric pressure Atmospheric pressure As inspiration begins and the ribs move upwards and outwards, the pressure within the airways (the intra- pulmonary pressure) falls below that of atmospheric air (shown as 0 mm Hg) Air rushes into the lungs to equalise the pressures and intrapulmonary pressure increases to that of the atmosphere The intrapleural pressure falls even more below that of the atmosphere as the pleural cavity expands on inspiration As expiration begins and the ribs move downwards and inwards, the pressure within the airways (the intra- pulmonary pressure) rises above that of atmospheric air (shown as 0 mm Hg) Air rushes out of the lungs to equalise the pressures and intrapulmonary pressure falls to that of the atmosphere The intrapleural pressure rises as the pleural cavity decreases in size on expiration The volume of air inspired and expired during one breathing cycle is shown in the lower part of the graph

The Collapsed Lung The pressure within the pleural cavity (intrapleural pressure) is always below that of the atmosphere (sub-atmospheric) If a lung is pierced, then air rushes into the pleural cavity along a pressure gradient Atmospheric air pressure is GREATER than the fluid pressure within the pleural cavity As air rushes into the pleural cavity, the pressure difference across the lung wall is eliminated, and the stretched lung collapses

Air enters the fluid-filled pleural cavity and this condition is known as a pneumothorax

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