Qualitative vs quantitative Qualitative information is written descriptions of what scientists observe Quantitative info involve counts or measurements and may be used to make a graph or table

Characteristics of Living Things Have an orderly structure (composed of one of more cells) Reproduce Grow Develop Respond to their environment Adapt Evolve

Stimulus is anything in an organism’s internal or external environment that causes the organism to react Response is the reaction to the stimulus

Scientific method Observe a problem Make a hypothesis Experiment Analyze results Draw a conclusion Publish results

Anything that contains Carbon Organic Compounds Anything that contains Carbon 4 main types: lipids, carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids

Parts of an atom Protons – positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom Neutrons – no charge in center of the atom also Electrons – negatively charged particles in the electron cloud outside of the nucleus

Isotopes Atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in their nucleus. Have different properties

There is an unequal distribution of the charges Polar molecule There is an unequal distribution of the charges Electrons of a water molecule spend more time around the oxygen than the hydrogens

Why is water’s polarity impt? Polar molecules attract ions and can dissolve other polar moecules, so water can dissolve many ionic compounds such as salt and polar compds like sugar

The attractive force between two ions of opposite charges Ionic Bond The attractive force between two ions of opposite charges Ex: NaCl

Electrons are shared between atoms Ex: Glucose Covalent Bond Electrons are shared between atoms Ex: Glucose

Hydrogen Bond Weak bond between the partial positive end of one molecule and the partial negative end on another molecule; strongest of the between molecule bonds (intermolecular) Ex: Water - Oxygen has a net neg. charge, hydrogen has a net pos. charge; so O and H from are attracted to each other

Carbohydrates Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen at about a ratio of 2 hydrogens and one oxygen for every carbon Glucose – C6H12O6 Ex: Starch, Glycogen and cellulose

Proteins Made of C, H, O, N, and sometime S Basic building blocks are called amino acids Ex: enzymes

Lipids Mostly carbon and hydrogen w/ very little oxygen Fats, oils, steroids Glycerol “backbone” w/ fatty acids attached = glyceride

Nucleic Acids Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus atoms arranged in 3 groups: Nitrogenous base Simple sugar Phosphate group EX: RNA and DNA

Enzymes An enzyme is a protein catalyst it is used to speed up a reaction, usually by lowering it activation energy, but is not used up in the reaction

pH pH – measure of how acidic or basic a solution is Acid – any substance that forms hydrogen ions in water (H+); pH of below; Strong acid = 1 or 2 Base – any substance that forms hydroxide ions in water (OH-); pH above 7; Strong base = 13 or 14

Diffusion Particle movement from areas of higher to lower concentration Dynamic Equilibrium is reached when there is no overall concentration change, because the rate of materials moving in and out is equal.

The cell theory All organisms are made up of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure, organization, and function in an organism. All cells come from preexisting cells. (refers to life comes from life)

Prokaryote vs Eukaryote Prokaryotes do NOT have membrane-bound organelles (no nucleus); mostly unicellular Eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles (have a nucleus); usually multicellular

Cell walls and chloroplasts… Cell wall is found only in plant cells, fungi, bacteria and some protists Chloroplasts are found in plants and some protists.

Bilayer membrane Phospholipid divided into two areas/regions: the backbone or head is polar and “likes water”, the fatty acids are nonpolar and are hydrophobic (fear water) to allow for selective permeability

Fluid mosaic model Describes the plasma membrane as a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. It is “fluid” because the phospholipids move within the membrane

Cell in a isotonic solution… Stays the same Hypertonic solution – shrinks HYPOtonic solution - swells

Passive transport… Uses no energy Movement from higher to lower concentration Ex: simple diffusion

Facilitated diffusion A form of passive transport that uses channel proteins to allow specific molecules to flow through Requires no energy

Active transport Requires energy Uses carriers proteins to transport ions or molecules from LOWER to HIGHER concentration gradients

Expulsion or secretion of materials from a cell Ex: waste products Exocytosis Expulsion or secretion of materials from a cell Ex: waste products

Endocytosis Process by which a cell surrounds and takes material in from its environment Ex: food

Pigment that absorbs most wavelengths of light BUT green Chlorophyll Pigment that absorbs most wavelengths of light BUT green Light energy is transferred to electrons in the chlorophyll

Process that uses the sun’s energy to make simple sugars Photosynthesis Process that uses the sun’s energy to make simple sugars Light dependent Light independent (Calvin cycle)

Light independent (Calvin cycle) Photosynthesis Light dependent Uses light Produces NADPH and ATP Light independent (Calvin cycle) Does not use light Make glucose

Adenosine triphosphate Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds ATP Adenosine triphosphate Energy is stored in the phosphate bonds Released when the bonds are broken

2 NET molecules of ATP released Glycolysis Serious of chemical reactions in the cytoplasm that break down glucose to release energy 2 NET molecules of ATP released

Breaks down glucose to provide energy for cells Cellular respiration Breaks down glucose to provide energy for cells Aerobic resp. – with oxygen Anaerobic resp – without oxygen present *ex. Lactic acid and alcoholic Fermentation)

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration Function Energy storage Energy release Location Chloroplasts Mitochondria Reactants CO2 and H2O C6H12O6 and O2 Products Equation 6 CO2 + 6 H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2 6O2 + C6H12O6 -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

A segment of DNA that controls the production of a protein. Genes A segment of DNA that controls the production of a protein. Control enzyme production

Sequence of growth and division of a cell Interphase is longest phase Cell cycle Sequence of growth and division of a cell Interphase is longest phase Mitosis (PMAT) is the period of nuclear division

Cell grows in size & carries on metabolism Chromosomes are duplicated Interphase Cell grows in size & carries on metabolism Chromosomes are duplicated

Chromatin coils/thickens to form visible chromosomes Prophase Chromatin coils/thickens to form visible chromosomes Nuclear envelope disappears Spindle fibers and centrioles appear

Sister chromatids line up on the equator of the cell (on the spindle) Metaphase Sister chromatids line up on the equator of the cell (on the spindle)

Anaphase Centromeres split apart and sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell

Telophase 2 distinct daughter cells are formed. The cells separate during cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm).

Genetic recombination Reassortment of chromosomes and their genetic info. Caused by crossing over of the chromosomes or by independent segregation of homologous chromosomes.

2 alleles for the same trait that are the same Homozygous 2 alleles for the same trait that are the same ie 2 dominant or 2 recessive alleles BB or bb

2 alleles for the same trait that are the different Heterozygous 2 alleles for the same trait that are the different ie 1 dominant and 1 recessive allele Bb

The allele combination of the organism Genotype The allele combination of the organism Ex: 2 alleles for tallness could be Tt or TT

The way the organism behaves or how it looks Phenotype The way the organism behaves or how it looks Ex: a tall plant, brown hair

A cell with 2 kind of each chromosome Ex: body cells 2n Diploid A cell with 2 kind of each chromosome Ex: body cells 2n

A cell with 1 kind of each chromosome Ex: sex cells n Haploid A cell with 1 kind of each chromosome Ex: sex cells n

Production of sex cells (sperm and eggs) Meiosis Production of sex cells (sperm and eggs) Contain half the # of chromosomes as the parent’s body cells

Male gamete unites with the female gamete Fertilization Male gamete unites with the female gamete Resulting fertilized cell is a zygote.

Meiosis Use to produce gametes containing half the number of chromosomes as the parents body cells

Ex. Red and white flowers = pink flowers Incomplete dominance Phenotype for the heterozygous individual is intermediate between those of the homozygous Ex. Red and white flowers = pink flowers

Codominance Both alleles expressed in the phenotype Ex. Black and white chickens offspring have checkered chickens (both black and white feathers mixed) Sickle cell disease in humans

Traits controlled by 2 or more alleles. Ex: blood types in humans Multiple alleles Traits controlled by 2 or more alleles. Ex: blood types in humans

Inheritance pattern controlled by 2 or more genes Polygenic Inheritance pattern controlled by 2 or more genes EX: skin and eye color in humans

Traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes Sex-linked traits Traits controlled by genes on the sex chromosomes Usually seen more often in males since they on have 1 X chromosome Ex: red-green color blindness and Hemophilia

Sex determination By the sex chromosomes XX = female XY = male

Passing on of traits from parents to offspring Heredity Passing on of traits from parents to offspring

Graphic representation of genetic inheritance Male = square Pedigree Graphic representation of genetic inheritance Male = square Female = circle Shaded = has the trait

Chart of chromosome pairs Karyotype Chart of chromosome pairs Chromosomes paired by size (length) and location of the centromere