Cognitive Level of Analysis Session 4: Schema Theory

There are three colour TV sets in the house There are three colour TV sets in the house. One is in the large master bedroom (which has a three piece bathroom en suite), one is in the main floor family room, and one is in Tom's bedroom. The house contains four bedrooms in all, plus an office, family room, and three washrooms. In addition to the TV, the family room contains a new stereo outfit, a microcomputer, a VCR, and a rare coin collection. The boys enter the master bedroom. Beside the jewelry case in the closet they find Tom's father's collection of pornographic video tapes. They select their favourite (an encounter between a guy and 12 women in a park in downtown Kitchener) and go to the family room to watch it.

Today’s learning outcome Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.

What is a schema? An organised mental representation of information about the world, events or people, stored in long term memory “Organised structures of knowledge and expectations of some aspect of the world.” (Bartlett, 1932) Does not have a physical existence (but may be related to the organisation of neurons in the brain)

Characteristics of schema Consists of concepts that are related to each other Encodes general knowledge that can be applied to many different situations Can be hierarchical, i.e. consist of sub- schemata/different levels Is unprincipled, i.e. can be organised in infinite ways

Schema for a picnic

Schema for USA? USA

The construction of schemas according to Jean Piaget The term schema was first used by Jean Piaget in 1926. (but there have been many with similar ideas before him) We try to understand a new or different object or concept by using one of our pre-existing schemas During assimilation, we try to fit new objects into existing schemas (a type of recognition, it provides us with comfort and security) During accommodation, we change our schemas to fit the characteristics of a new object (learning)

Schema theory Schema theory seeks to explain our interpretation of the world from a psychological perspective, which stems from cognitive science. Schemas are derived from prior experience and knowledge. They simplify reality, setting up expectations about what is probable in relation to particular social and textual contexts. Theory can describe how specific knowledge is organised and stored in memory so it can be accessed and used when needed Theory suggests what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing Idea is based on the assumption that humans are active processors of information We don’t passively respond to information, we interpret and integrate it to make sense of our experiences but we are not always aware of this

What do schemas do? They guide our behaviour They predict likely happenings They help us to make sense of current experiences They allow us to form expectations about situations, the world and people They organise our knowledge and assist recall

Distortions If information is missing, the brain fills in the blanks based on existing schemas, or it simply invents something that seems to fit in This can result in mistakes referred to as distortions

Schema theory and memory processes Schema theory has been used to explain memory processes Cognitive psychologists divide memory into 3 processes It is now believed schema processing can affect memory at all three stages Encoding Transforming sensory information into a meaningful memory Storage Creating a biological trace of encoded information in memory, which is either consolidated or lost Retrieval Using the stored information

Activity Create a mind map about a schema of your own choice. Procedure schemas are schemas for certain skills or events. Create a schema for events that happen when you are visiting a restaurant A schema about a certain group of people is called stereotype. What is your stereotype of an English person?

Darley and Gross (1983) Lab experiment on schema processing in social world Participants shown two videos of two different girls. Video 1: a girl playing in a rich environment Video 2: A girl playing in a poor environment Then shown a video of the girl in what could be an intelligence test

Darley and Gross (1983) When asked to judge the future of the girls all participants said “rich” girl would be more successful than “poor” girl Demonstrates that participants probably used pre- stored schemas of what it means to be poor and rich and interpreted the ambiguous information accordingly to form an overall impression that may not have been correct

Read the passage… The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange items into different groups. Of course one pile might be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult tot foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.

Rate the comprehensibility of the passage Recall as much of the passage as you can 1 Very difficult to understand 7 Very Easy to understand

Now read the passage again… Washing Clothes The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange items into different groups. Of course one pile might be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities, that is the next step; otherwise, you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do few things at once than too many. In the short run this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult tot foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.

Rate the comprehensibility of the passage Recall as much of the passage as you can 1 Very difficult to understand 7 Very Easy to understand

Bransford & Johnson (1972) Title No title Rated high comprehensibility Rated lower comprehensibility Remembered more details Remembered fewer details Result was explained through schema theory i.e. being told the title activates our ‘laundry’ schema Title helped with both encoding and retrieval stage of information Supports idea schemas play role in different processes of memory Encoding Transforming sensory information into a meaningful memory Storage Creating a biological trace of encoded information in memory, which is either consolidated or lost Retrieval Using the stored information

Anderson & Pichert, 1978 Then read a passage about two boys playing truant from school... Asked participants to read a story about two boys playing truant from school in which a house was described. The participants were told to read the story from one of two perspectives: potential home buyer burglar After a delay, participants were asked to recall as much as they could about the story.

[Coding: Burglar items ; Homebuyer items ] Anderson & Pichert (1978) [Coding: Burglar items ; Homebuyer items ] There are three color TV sets in the house. One is in the large master bedroom (which has a three piece bathroom en suite), one is in the main floor family room, and one is in Tom's bedroom. The house contains four bedrooms in all, plus an office, family room, and three washrooms. In addition to the TV, the family room contains a new stereo outfit , a microcomputer, a VCR, and a rare coin collection. The boys enter the master bedroom. Beside the jewelry case in the closet they find Tom's father's collection of pornographic video tapes. They select their favorite (an encounter between a guy and 12 women in a park in downtown Kitchener) and go to the family room to watch it.

Anderson & Pichert (1978) During the first recall session, participants recalled significantly more information about the house that was relevant to their perspective potential home buyer might remember details about layout/defects in the house burglars might remember information about the entrances and exits) than information that was relevant to the other perspective Identity Proportion Recalled Items

Change in proportion recalled Anderson & Pichert (1978) After first recall session, participants were told to think about the story again, but this time, from the other perspective (potential home buyers were now told to be burglars, and vice versa). Then, without reading the story again, they were told to recall as much as they could about the story again. During this second recall, participants were able to recall information about the house that was relevant to their new perspective, but which they had not recalled before. Items First identity/second identity Change in proportion recalled

More evidence that schemas influence both encoding and retrieval Anderson & Pichert (1978) This result shows two things: 1.) The information that was irrelevant to their original perspective (schema) was actually learnt ( encoded ) and 2.) This information was not accessible unless a relevant perspective (schema) was activated. More evidence that schemas influence both encoding and retrieval Encoding Transforming sensory information into a meaningful memory Storage Creating a biological trace of encoded information in memory, which is either consolidated or lost Retrieval Using the stored information

Evaluation of Anderson & Pichert (1978) This experiment was conducted in a lab, so ecological validity may also be an issue here. However a strength of the experiment was its variable control. Laboratory experiment enables cause(schema) effect (encoding/recall of memory) relationship Mixed design counterbalanced all variables High degree of control and accounting for order effects

The War of the Ghosts One night two young men from Egulac went down to the river to hunt seals, and while they were it became foggy and calm. Then they heard war cries and they thought; 'Maybe this is a war-party.' They escaped to the shore, and hid behind a log. Now canoes came up, and they heard the noise of paddles and saw one canoe coming up to them. There were five men in the canoe and they said; 'What do you think? We wish to take you along. We are going up the river to make war on the people.' One of the young men said; 'I have no arrows.' 'Arrows are in the canoe,' they said. 'I will not go along. I might be killed. My relatives do not know where I have gone. But you,' he said, turning to the other, 'May go with them.' So one of the young men went, but the other returned home. And the warriors went on up the river to a town on the other side of Kalama. The people came down to the water and began to fight, and many were killed. But presently, one of the young men heard one of the warriors say; 'Quick let us go home. That Indian has been hit.' Now he thought; 'Oh, they are ghosts.' He did not feel sick, but he had been shot. So the canoes went back to Egulac, and the young man went back to his house and made a fire. And he told everybody and said; 'Behold, I accompanied the ghosts, and we went to fight. Many of our fellows were killed and many of those that attacked us were killed. They said I was hit, but I did not feel sick.‘ He told it all, and then he became quiet. When the sun rose, he fell down. Something black came out of his mouth. His face became contorted. The people jumped up and cried. He was dead.

The War of the Ghosts (Bartlett, 1932) Aim: To investigate whether people’s memory for a story is affected by previous knowledge (schemas) and the extent to which memory is reconstructive Procedure Asked British participants to hear a story and reproduce it after a short time and then repeatedly over a period of months or years. Story was an unfamiliar Native American legend called “The War of the Ghosts”

War of the Ghosts According to Bartlett (1932) your recall will show a westernised interpretation of this American Indian folk tale thus illustrating your subjective memory construction rather than accurate objective recall of events. We fit information into our all ready existing schema. Our schema are affected by our culture. How might this idea be applied to eyewitness testimony of criminal occurrences?

Bartlett (1932) War of the Ghosts Results Participants remembered the gist of the story but they changed unfamiliar elements to make sense of the story by using terms more familiar to their own cultural expectations (e.g. seal hunting changed to fishing). The excuse for not fighting "I have run out of arrows" was avoided and instead put down to "worried relatives", because it was more familiar to the participant. Story remained a coherent whole although it was changed Story became noticeably shorter for each reconstruction Indicates that participants were not reading back a copy of the story but reconstructing it from the main details held in their memory.

Bartlett’s conclusions (1932) Bartlett concluded that remembering is an active process. Memories are not copies of experience but rather ‘reconstructions’ that rely on schemas. Our schemas can be affected by our culture and the world that we live in

Evaluation of Bartlett (1932) Study was performed in a laboratory and can be criticised for having lack of ecological validity Wynn & Logie (1998) did a similar study with students using " real - life" events experienced during their first week at university at various intervals of time ranging from 2 weeks to six months. They found that the initial accuracy of recall was sustained throughout the time period, suggesting that schema-induced memory distortions may be less common in naturalistic conditions than in the laboratory.

Evaluation of Bartlett (1932) Furthermore Bartlett’s study wasn't a very well controlled study. Participants did not receive standardised instructions and some of the memory distortions may be due to the participants’ guessing (demand characteristics) Barlett, 1932 " I thought it best, for the purposes of these experiments, to try to influence the subject's procedure as little as possible.“ As a result, some distortions observed by Bartlett may have been due to conscious guessing rather than schema-influenced memory Gauld and Stephen ( 1967) found that the instructions stressing the need for accurate recall eliminated almost half the errors usually obtained. In spite of its methodological limitations this study is one of the most important in the study of memory. Study offers support for schema theory and for reconstructive memory.

Strengths of Schema Theory Lots of research has provided support for schema theory Schema theory has proven extremely useful in explaining many cognitive processes like perception, memory and reasoning Theory can be used to explain the reconstructive nature of memory, for example in ETW, stereotyping, gender identity (gender schema) and cultural differences (cultural schemas)

Weaknesses of Schema Theory Cohen (1993) argued that the concept of schema is too vague to be useful and it is not clear how schemas are acquired in the first place or where they are stored etc. Schemas are an internal construct and are therefore untestable Schema theory may focus too much on the inaccuracy of memory but most of the time people remember accurately

Conclusions Nevertheless, there is enough research to suggest schemas do affect memory processes knowledge, both in a positive and negative sense. They do simplify reality, and help us to make sense of current experiences. Schemas are useful concepts in helping us understand how we organize our knowledge.

Answer the questions Who first coined the term schema? In your own words, define schema. How do our schemas help us? What is meant by the term ‘cognitive distortion’? Briefly describe the three stages of memory. How does Darley and Gross’ study demonstrate that schemas can influence our expectations based on what we already know? In the Bransford and Johnson study, what two differences occurred when a title was added to the passage? In the Anderson and Pichert study, when asked to change their perspective, participants were able to recall additional items from the house without reading the passage again. What does this suggest about schemas? What experimental design did Anderson and Pichert use? Why can this be considered a strength? How does Bartlett’s War of the Ghost’s study indicate that cultural schemas influence our memory? What did Wynn and Logie find? What does this suggest about Bartlett’s study? What was Cohen’s criticism of schema theory?