Kalabhras (3rd C. A.D to 6th C. A.D) or (300 A.D -600 A.D) Lack of unity Turning point Dark age- available of limited sources K.A.Nilakanda Sastri “Kalabhras were mysterious and an enemy to cilvilisation”.

Sources History of Kalabhras contracted based on available literary and epigraphical sources. Lit. Tamil Navalar Charithai, Periyapurama of Sekkilar. Yapperunkalam. Epi. Kasakudi Copper plates of Simhavishnu Velvikudi Copper Plates of Nedunjadayan Kanchi Vaikuntaperumal temple inscription Kurram copper plates of Narasimhavarman I. Nerur Copper Plate inscription of Chalukya Vikramaditya II

Origin of Kalabhras Kalabhras – Muttaraiyars T.A. Gopinatha Rao connected with Muttaraiyars based on the Vaikunta Perumal Temple Ins. Muttaraja II who ruled Kalabhra country had title of ‘Kalvarkalvan’ Word kalvan in Tamil perhaps became kalabhras in Sanskrit.

Kalabhras: Vellalakalappalar Proposed by M.Raghava Iyangar He was not agree with kalabhras were kalvar. Achutakalappalar was the author of Sivaganabothama ruler of Kalabhra dynasty. According to M.Raghava Iyengar, He belong to Vellala groups. Hence, he argued that Kalabhras were known as Vellalakalappalar groups. It was not agreed by S.Krishnaswamy Iyengar

Kalabhras: Kalvars Coined by S.Krishnaswamy Iyangar Sangam Literature mentioned that Puli who was the chief of Kalvar, who ruled Venkatam. Main profession was robbery, they settled in palai or deseart region. Political turmoil kalvars utilised the chance to establish their power over large parts of southern India.

Kalabhras – Oliyar - T.V. Mahalingam Initiated by His Sangam Polity. He argued that kalabhras were Oiyars of Tondaimandalam. Kalabhras- Jains - T.N.Subramanian Editor of ‘Pandyan Copper Plates’ Opined that Kalabhras were Jains He identified Vajranandi,Jain scholar whoe established Tamil Association or Dravida Sangam in 476 AD at Madurai.

All the theories about the Origin of Kalabhras did not proved by the Scholar with concrete evidence. S.Krishnasamy Iyengar and N.Subramanian accepted to some extent the theory of Kalabhras were descendants of Kalvar of Palai region.

Conquest and Administration of Kalabhras Internal disorder or disputes among Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas which created the path to the entry of Kalabhras into the Tamil Country. This internal disunity made Kalabhras to establish their power in entire Tamilagam They conquered all the parts of Tamil country and rest of the local chieftains were accepted their political supremacy.

They extended their authority over Ceylon also. There was no proper source to know the Genealogy of Kalabhras dynasty. After the establishment of the power over the territory, concentrated on administrative activities.

Political Divisions Kingdom divided into four number of political divisions or Mandalams. Kongu nadu Chera nadu Chola nadu Pandya nadu Capital City - Kaveripatinam

Encouraged Tamil Language Dravida Sangam was founded by Vajranandi in 476 A.D. at Madurai. Aim: promoting Tamil literature and Spreading Jainism. However, the power of Kalabhras began to decline by the sixth century A.D Emergence of Pallavas and Pandyas raised against the Kalabhras. Simha Vishnu defeated the Kalabhras and founded the Pallava kingdom with Kanchi as Capital. Later Pandya Kingdom established by Kodungon, Madurai as Capital City.

Later Pallavas 575 C.E – 891 C.E Simhavishnu (575-600 C.E) Most powerful rulers great conquerors and patrons of art and architecture. ruled nearly 500 years. Simhavishnu (575-600 C.E) Real founder of pallavas From his period we are having historical evidences to know the clear picture about the later pallavas. Mathavilasa Prahasanam of Mahendravarman I mentioned about several conquests of Simhavishnu. Kasakudi copper plate inscription dealt about defeat of Kalabhras, Cholas and Pandyas by him. He assumed the title ‘Avanisimha’ for his great conquest.

His kingdom spread from river Krishna to river Kaveri or from northern Odhisa to Tanjore and Trichy. Udayenderan Copper Plate, indicates that he was the keen follower and devotee of Lord Vishnu. He invited Bharavi, Sanskrit scholar from the court of Vishnuvardhan, ruler of Eastern Chalukyas. He appointed him as court poet in his royal cabinet.

Mahendravarman I (600-630 C.E) Son of Simhavishnu Great warrior, able administrator, Skilled musician, poet and builder. Patron of art and architecture. He wrote Sanskrit drama called Mathavilasa Prahasanam and author of Bhagavadakujjiyam he was expert in making rock cut temples.

Pallavas - Chalukyas of Badami conflict (620 C.E) Mahendravarman I vs Pulakesi II, ruler of Chalukyas of Badami or Vatapi. Aihole Inscription of Pulikesi II described about the invasion of Pulakesi II to Pallava’s territory of Kanchipuram. Pulakesi attacked Mahendravarman’s army at Pulalar in the year 620. Initially Mahendravarman could not control Pulakesi’s force due to his illness. Later he defeated Chalukyas and saved his territory with the help of his Army commander Paranjothi.

Jain to Saivist Initially he followed Jainism, as a jain he persecuted Budhists, Saivist and Vaishnavist. He gave much disturbance to Saiva saint Appar or Tirunavukkarasar, later he converted him to Saivism. It was the great turning point. After conversion to Saivism he stood against Jainism and began to persecute them. Demolished Jain temples. Around 9000 jain monks persecuted in single day at Madurai.

Contribution of Art His contribution towards Art and Architecture, known as ‘Vichitrachitta’ and ‘ Chitrakarapuli’ due to his talent in paintings. Mandagapattu Inscriptions glorifying the Mahendravarman’s patron of art. Kudimiyanmalai (Music Inscription) rock paintings wall paintings of Kailasanatha temples major evidence to prove Mahendravarman’s taste in paintings.

Mahendravarm I period was considered as the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism Witnessed the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.

Narasimhavarman I 630-668 C.E Son of Mahendravarman I Greatest ruler among the pallavas His period known as ‘golden age’ of the history of pallavas Assumed several title ‘Mahamalla’ ‘Sribhara’ ‘Srinidhi’ ‘Ranajaya’ ‘Nayanankar’ and ‘Atyantakama’.

Conquest of Vatapi (642 or 643 C.E) Pallavas vs Chalukya conflict continued Pulakesi II of Chalukya ruler invaded towards south to defeat the Pallavas. Before Vatapi battle, Pallavas faced two minor battle with Chalukyas, such as Paraliam and Manimangalam. Narasimhavarman defeated Pulakesi II and killed him in the battle field itself. He destroyed his entire territory After conquest of Vatapi, Pallavas brought Ganesha sculpture from Vatapi to Kanchi. Commermoration of the conquest of Vatapi he called as ‘Vatapi Kondan’

Vatapi Ganesh Pillayarpatti Ganesh

Invasion of Ceylon Manavarman was prince of Ceylon Due to a civil war he driven out from Ceylon He took refuge in the court of Narasimhavarman and served as loyal attendant to him. Manavarman helped him while conquest of Vatapi. Therefore Narasimhavarma decided to assist him to regain his throne of Ceylon.

Visit of Hiuen-Tsang to Kanchi (642 C.E) Chinese pilgrim visited south india in 642 C.E. During the reign of Narasimhavarma I North India during Harshavardhana. Si-yu-ki or 'The Records of the Western World' was written by him. According ti Hiuen – Tsang ‘the region in and around Kanchi was known as ‘Dravida’. He observed and mentioned about the activities of Hindu temples in his travel account. Noticed that eighty temples existed in and around Kanchi.

His account shows that Dharma Pala, the Vice – Chancellor of Nalanda University belong to Kanchi. During his visit Harshavardhan in Northern India Pulakesi II in Deccan region Narashimahavarman I of South India

Successors of Narashimavarman I After Narashimahavarman I Nandivarman II Paramesvarman II Dandivarman Nandivarman III Nirupathunga Aparajitha –ruled pallava kingdom respectively. Most of them weak rulers Maintained close relation with Chalukyas and later Pandyas and Rastrakutas. After Nadivarman III civil war occurred in the Pallava kingdom. It led to the collapse of the unity and strength of the Pallava rulers

Battle of Thirupurampiam 880 C.E The emergence of Pandyas and Cholas and lack of unity among the Pallava rulers led to the downfall of the Pallava Kingdom. Details mentioned in Udeyendran Coper plate inscription. After Nandivarman III there was a war of succession broke out among his four sons. 1. Nirupatunga 2.Sankha 3.Aparajitha 4. Kampavarman

In 870 C.E Nirupathunga succeeded his father Nandivarman III Among his four sons Sankha and Kampavarman had no historical importance War of Succession between Nirupatunga vs Aparajitha This internal disputes which paved the way to the interference of Pandyas and Cholas entry into the political affairs of Pallavas. Nirupathunga gained support from Varaguna III of Pandya ruler Aparajitha got support from Chola ruler Vijayalaya and Ganga ruler Prithvipathi I.

As Vijayala old he did not take part in the battle, instead of him, his son Aditya Chola took part. When the battle was in climax stage, Pandya ruler, Varaguna II defeated by his enemies. Because of this incident Nirupathunga lost his confidence in the battle field. On the other hand Ganga ruler Prithvipathi I killed in the battle field. Finally, Aparajitha won this battle of Thirupurampiam. But he was not efficient ruler, who did not maintain his political supremacy over his vast kingdom.

Aditya Chola Utilised this opportunity and captured the pallava’s territory. In 891 C.E the entire pallava kingdom came under the supervision of Chola Empire. Major impact of this war: Collapse and decline of Pallava Kingdm in the south India. Cholas and Pandya emerged as supreme ruler in the southern part of Tamil country.