Sangam Age and Kalabhras Period IV 300 BCE to 500 CE Sangam Age and Kalabhras
Sources
Literary Sources The Sangam literature chiefly consists of Tholkappiyam, Ettuthogai and Pathuppattu. These works provide valuable information to know the history of the Sangam Age. Among these Tholkappiyam was the earliest. During the post-Sangam period, the Pathinen Kilkanakku or the Eighteen Works was composed. The twin epics - Silappathigaram and Manimegalai - also belonged to the post- Sangam period. All these literature help us to know the society, economy and culture of the ancient Tamils.
Archaeological Sources The archaeological sources for the sangam period are limited. They may be classified into: (a) Material Remains (b) Inscriptions and (c) Coins
Material Remains Several monuments of this period have been brought to light by the excavations conducted at various places in Tamil Nadu. Robert Bruce Foote conducted excavations at Adhichanallur where he had found a large number of articles made of iron, bronze and gold. They depict the life of the ancient Tamils.
Dubreuil and Mortimer Wheeler also made excavations at Arikkamedu near Pondicherry. Roman pottery, glass howls, gems and coins have been found there. These findings confirm the commercial contacts between the Roman Empire and Tamil country during the Sangam Age.
A Buddhist Vihara was found at Kilaivur near kaveripoompattinam A Buddhist Vihara was found at Kilaivur near kaveripoompattinam. It belonged to the post-Sangam period. Other Important sites of excavations are Uraiyur, Kanchipuram, Kodumanal and Porunthal. The under-water archaeology has also developed recently and excavations have been made under the sea near Poompuhar. A shipwreck has been found there. These findings focus much light on the history of the Sangam period.
Inscriptions Epigraphical information for the Sangam period is scanty. The Asokan Edicts refer to the Chera, Chola and Pandya kingdoms. The Hathikumba Inscriptions of the Kalinga king , Kharavela also mentions the three Tamil Kingdoms. The Kalugumalai inscriptions help us to know about ancient Tamil scripts called Tamil Brahmi. (Tamili)
The Tirukkovalur inscriptions refer to the local chieftains and the tragic end of the Tamil Poet, Kapilar. The inscriptions at Thirupparankundrum mention the gift of cave beds to the Jain monks. The inscriptions found at Arnattar hills, near Pugalur belonged to the First Century A.D. and these inscriptions furnish information regarding the Chera kings.
Coins The study of coins is called numismatics, We get useful historical information from the study of ancient coins. The Tamil Kings of the Sangam period issued gold and silver coins but they are not found in large numbers. However, Roman coins made of gold and silver are found all over Tamil country. These coins further confirm the trade relations between Tamil country and Rome during the Sangam Age.
Foreign Accounts In addition to the Sangam literature, foreign literary accounts remain useful sources for the study of the Sangam Age. Greek and Roman writers had mentioned about the society and economy of the Sangam Tamils in their accounts. Megasthanes in his book Indica also referred to the three Tamil Kingdoms. Other authors such as Strabo, Pliny and Ptolemy provide valuable information regarding the Sangam Age. The Ceylonese books - Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa - help us to fix the date of the Sangam.
Chronology of the Sangam Age Chronology means the arranging of the historical events on the basis of the date of happenings. It remains very difficult to find out the exact date of the Sangam period. There are different opinions in fixing the date of the Sangam. It is believed that there existed three Sangams. The First Sangam had flourished at Then Madurai and the Second Sangam at Kapadapuram. Since these two places were eroded into the Indian Ocean, the Pandyan kings had established the Third Sangam at Madurai.
Many scholars did not believe the existence of Three Sangams. However, the Sangam literature, which we possess now, might have been composed during the period of the Third Sangam. Hence, the Sangam Age that we come to know denotes only the Third Sangam. Based on the literary, epigraphic and archaeological sources, it is established by scholars that the Sangam Age flourished from Third Century B.C. to Third Century A.D.
The Sangam Age The Sangam Age in Tamil country is significant and unique for its social, economic, religious and cultural life of the Tamils. There was an all round development during this period. The Sangam literatures as well as the archaeological findings reveal these developments.
'Sangam' is the Tamil form of Sanskrit word "Sangha" meaning a group of persons or an association. The Tamil Sangam was an Academy of poets and bards, who flourished in three different periods and in different places under the patronage of the Tamil kings. According to tradition, the first Sangam was founded by Sage Agastya and its seat was at Thenmadurai (South Madurai).
The seat of the second Sangam was Kapadapuram, another capital of the Pandyas. It was attended by several poets and produced a large mass of literature, but only Tholkappiyam (the early Tamil grammar) has survived. The seat of the third Sangam was the present Madurai. It has also produced vast literature, but only a fraction of it has survived. It is this fraction which constitutes the extant body of Sangam literature. The Age of the Sangam is the age to which the Sangam literature belonged. The Sangam literature constitutes a mine of information on conditions of life around the beginning of the Christian era.
Sangam Polity From the earliest times Tamilaham had known only three major kingdoms the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was celebrated for pearls. He also speaks of its being ruled by a woman, which may suggest some matriarchal influence in the Pandya society. In the Major Rock Edict II Asoka mentions of the three kingdoms – Pandyas, Cholas and Cheras as neighbours. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavelea contains the early epigraphic reference to the kingdoms of the Tamil country, where he is said to have destroyed a confederacy of Tamil states – Tramiradesa Sanghatam. However, the chief source for the Sangam period is the Sangam literature.
The Sangam literature speaks highly of three South Indian kingdoms- Chera Chola and Pandya The three ancient kingdoms of the Cholas, the Pandas and the Chera combined with were known as Tamilakam, or Tamil realm or Tamil Country.
In addition to these three kingdoms, there were also local chieftains. The most famous among the local chieftains were the Seven Patrons, popularly known as Kadaiyezhu Vallalgal. They are Pehan Paari Kaari Ay (Andiran) Athiyaman Nalli Ori
The Three Kingdoms of Sangam Age Capital Emblem Famous port Chera Vanji or Karur Bow and Arrow Musiri, Tondi Chola Uraiyur Tiger Puhar / Kaveripoompatanam/ Poompuhar Pandya Madurai Fish Korkai, Saliyur
Flag
Kingdoms with flags
The Cheras The earliest reference to the Chera (Keralaputhra) kingdom is in the Ashokan inscriptions. It comprised the modern districts of Malabar, Cochin and Northern Travancore. Its Capital was Vanji. The greatest Chera king was Senguttuvan, the red or good Chera. He is credited with having invaded the north and crossed the river Ganga. But all this seems to be exaggerated. Pattini cult, that is the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife, was started by him.
Cont… The Chera or the Kerala country was situated to the west and north of the land of the Pandyas. It included the narrow strip of land between the sea and the mountains and covered portions of both Kerala and Tamilnadu. In the early centuries of the Christian era, the Chera country was as important as the country of the Cholas and the Pandyas. It owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments at Musiris identical with Cranganore in the Chera country to protect their interests. It is said that they also built there a temple of Augustus.
Bow and Arrow
Kingdom of the Cheras
The Cholas The homeland of the Cholas was the Kaveri delta and the adjoining region of modern Tanjore and Tiruchirappalli. They were the first to acquire ascendancy in the far east with kaveripattanam, or Puhar as their capital. Its inland capital was Uraiyur.
Cont… It seems that in the middle of the second century CE. a Chola king named Elara conquered Sri Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years. The famous king of Cholas was Karikala which means, ‘The man with the charred leg.’ He was a contemporary of the Chera king Perunjeral Adan. Karikala was a very competent ruler and a great warrior.
The Cholas maintained an efficient navy. Cont… He founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of embankment along the Kaveri River. This was built with the labour of 12,000 slaves who were brought as captives from Sri Lanka. Puhar was a great centre of trade and commerce, and excavations show that it had a large dock. The Cholas maintained an efficient navy.
The Pandyas The ancient kingdom of the Pandas, with its capital at Madurai, compromised the modern districts of Madurai, Ramnad, Tirunelveli and southern parts of Travancore. The Pandyas were first mentioned by Megasthanese. According to the Magasthanse, the kingdom was once ruled by a woman. According to Asoka edicts, the Pandyas were independent people living beyond the Southern border of the Mauryan Empire. The greatest Pandya king was Nedunchezhian who defeated the Chera and Cholas.
Cont… According to Silappadikaram, Nedunjhelian, in a fit of passion, ordered without judicial enquiry the execution of Kovalan who was accused of theft of the queen’s anklet. When Kovalan’s wife proved her husband’s innocence, the king was struck with remorse and died of shock on the throne. The Pandya kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus. The Pandya port Korkai was a great centre of trade and commerce, another port was Saliyur.
Coin of the Pandyas
Kingdoms of the Pandyas
Period of Sangam literature The earliest script that the Tamils used was the Tamili script. It was only from the late ancient and early medieval period, they started evolving a new angular script, called the Grantha script, from which the modern Tamil is derived. Some of the contents of the Sangam literature are corroborated by the writings of some Greek and Roman classical writers of the first and second century A. D, leading us to fix the period of Sangam age roughly between third century B.C. to third century A.D. So most of the Sangam literature also must have been produced during this period. The Sangam literature was finally compiled in its present form from 300 CE -600 CE.
Sangam Literature The Sangam literature which combines idealism with realism and deals with secular matter relating to public and social activity like government, war charity, trade, worship, agriculture, etc. Among the poets and thinkers of the Sangam age Tolkappiyar, Tiruvalluvar, lllango Adigal, Sittalai Sattanar, Nakkirar, Kapilar, Paranar, Auvaiyar, Mangudi Marudanar and a few others are outstanding. Sangam literature consists of the earliest Tamil works such as the Tholkappiyam, the ten poems (Patthupattu), the eight anthologies (Ettuthogai) and the eighteen minor works (Padinenkilkanakku), and the three epics. The chief merits of the Sangam works is their absolute devotion to standards and adherence to literary conventions.
Earliest Tamil Works Tholkappiyam is the oldest extant Tamil grammar written by Tholkkappiyar (one of the 12 disciples of Saint Agastya.) It is divided into three major parts, each consisting of nine iyals (sub-parts) and has a total of 1612 sutras. Other earliest Tamil works were the Agasttiyam (a work on grammar of letters and life) by Saint Agasttiyar, Pannirupadalam and the Kakkipadiniyam.
Eight Anthologies (Ettuthogai) Aingurunuru, compiled by Gudalur Kilar, consists of 500 erotic poems. Agananuru, compiled by Rudrasarman, consists of love poems. Narrinai comprises 400 short poems on love. Kuruntthogai has 400 love poems. Purananuru consists of 400 poems in praise of kings. The Nandas and Mauryas are referred in one of the poems. Kalitthogai comprises love poems. Paripadal has 24 poems in praise of gods. Padirrupatthu is a short collection of 8 poems in praise of the Chera Kings.
Ten Poems (Patthupattu) The Patthuppattu or Ten Idylls consist of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai, Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji, Kurinjippatttu, Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam
The poetry in the Patthupattu (Ten Idylls) and the Ettuthogai (eight anthologies) were divided into two main groups: Aham (deals with matters strictly limited to one aspect of subjective experience viz., love) and Puram (deals with matters capable of externalization or objectification).
Eighteen Minor Works (Padinenkilkanakku) These works are called ‘minor works’ because the poems in these are shorter in form than those in the Ettuthogai and Patthuppattu. The most important among these are the Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar (known as the Bible of Tamil Land’, it is a compound of the Dharmasastra, the Arthasastra and the Kamasutra), the Naladiyar, the Pazhamozhi by Munnrurai Araiyar, the Acharakkovai, etc.
The Epics The twin epics Silappadikaram (The Jewelled Anklet) and Manimekalai belong to the early centuries of the Christian era. 1. Silappadikaram was written by Ilango Adigal (grandson of Karikala, the great Chola King) in the second century A.D. It is a tragic story of a merchant, Kovalan of Puhar who falls in love with a dancer Madhavi, neglecting his own wife, Kannagi, who in the end revenges the death of her husband at the hands of the Pandya King and becomes a goddess. It marks the beginning of Kannagi cult or Pattini cult that is worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife. There is also a reference to the Ceylonese king Gajabahu being present on the occasion of the installation of a Kannagi temple, the Goddess of Chastity, by Chera king Senguttuvan.
Manimekalai Manimekalai was written by poet Satthanar. It is the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan, and Madhavi of the earlier epic. The main aim of this epic seems to be to expound the excellence of the Buddhist religion through the medium of the travails of Manimekalai consequent on the loss of the city of Puhar when the sea eroded into the coast. This epic is the only important ancient work which gives glimpse of the development of the fine arts in the Sangam age. In both these epics, a good deal of social and historical information is found Sivaga Sindamani, written by Thirutthakkadevar a Jaina ascetic, is the story of Sivaga or Jivaka
Administration The king was the very centre and embodiment of administration. He was called Ko, Mannan, Vendan, Korravan or Iraivan. Though hereditary monarch was the prevailing form of government, disputed successions and civil wars were not unknown. The court of the crowned monarch was called avai. The ideal of the ‘conquering king’ (Vijigishu) was accepted and acted on. The King’s birthday (Perunal) was celebrated every year. Kings assumed several titles. For example, the Pandyas were known as Minavar, Kavuriyar, Panchavar, Tennar, Seliyar, Marar, Valudi.etc the Cholas called themselves Sennis, Sembiyas, Valavan and Killi, and the Cheras had titles like Vanavar, Villavar, Kudavar, Kuttuvar, Poraiyar and so on.
Cont… The sabha or manram of the king in the capital was the highest court of justice. The king was assisted by a large body of officials, who were divided into five assemblies: Amaichchar or ministers, Purohithas or priests, Senapathi or military commanders, Dhuthar or envoys and Orrar or spies.
Provincial and Local Administration The entire kingdom was called mandalam. The Chola mandalam, The Pandya mandalam and The Chera mandalam were the major mandalams. Below the mandalam was a major division, nadu (province). The ur was a town which was variously described as a big village (perur), a small village (sirur) or an old village (mudur). Pattinam was the name for a coastal town and Puhar was the harbour area. The administration of nadus was generally carried on by hereditary chiefs. The village was the fundamental unit of administration which was administered by local assemblies called manrams.
Revenue administration The commonest and possibly the largest source of revenue was land-tax called Karai, but the share of the agricultural proudce, claimed and collected by the king,is not specified. The ma and veli was the measure of land and kalam as measure of grain. A well-known unit of territory yielding tax was a variyam (Vari meant tax) and an officer in-charge of collecting the tax from that unit of land was called a Variyar. Tributes paid by the feudatories and war booty (irai) constituted a considerable part of royal resources. Trade local and long-distance, constituted a very important source of royal revenue. Tolls and custom duties were ulgu or sungum. The duties to be paid to the king were generally known as Kadamai or Paduvadu.
Military Administration Apparently out of the taxes collected from the peasantry, the state maintained a rudimentary army and it consisted of chariots drawn by oxen, of elephants, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played an important part in war. Horses were imported by sea into the Pandyan kingdom. The institution of virakkal or nadukul (hero-stone), which was a practice of erecting monuments for the dead soldiers and worshiping them, was prevalent at that time. The institution of Kavalmaram or Kadimaram was also prevalent. Under it, each ruler had a great tree in his palace as a symbol of power.
Society Tolkappiyam refers to the five-fold division of lands – Kurinji (hilly tracks), Mullai (pastoral), Marudam (agricultural), Neydal (coastal) and Palai (desert). The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection. Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products. Marudam – chief deity Vendhan (Indiran) – chief occupation, agriculture. Neydal – chief deity Kadalon (Varunan) – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing. Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.
Social Divisions The Tamil society during the Sangam period was broadly divided into several groups. However, the earliest of the Sangam literature, Tholkappiyam refers to the four divisions prevalent in the Sangam society namely, Anthanar, Arasar, Vaislyar and Vellalar, it may be said that this classification roughly corresponds to the Vedic Social division. Another Sangam work, Purananuru mentions the names of ancient Tamil tribes such as Thudiyan, Paanan, Paraiyan and Kadamban. These divisions indicate the complex social structure prevalent in the Sangam Age.
Food and Hospitality Rice was the staple food during the Sangam period. The food habits varied among the people according to their economic status. The rich had their feasts every day, while the poor took simple food. Chewing betel leaves was most common among the people. Offering betel leaves to guests had become a social formality. Hospitality was a special virtue of the Sangam Tamils. The Sangam literature describes how hosts had always been waiting to welcome guests.
Dress and Ornaments The Sangam Tamils paid more attention to their dress. It varied according to their status. The rich wore silk and fine cotton garments. The middle class people generally wore two pieces of clothes made of Cotton. Women paid much attention to their hairstyle. They used flowers like Jasmine to decorate their plaits and tufts. Both men and women used perfumes made of sandal and flowers. The Sangam literature refers to a variety of ornaments worn by both men and women. They were made of gold, silver, pearls and precious stones. Poor people used ornaments made of shells and beads.
Religion The primary deity of the Sangam period was Seyon or Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil God. The worship of Murugan was having an ancient origin and the festivals relating to God Murugan was mentioned in the Sangam literature. He was honoured with six abodes known as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods worshipped during the Sangam period were Mayon (Vishnu), Vendan (Indiran), Kadalon (Varunan) and Korravai. The temple known as nagar, koil, kottam, purai or devalayam. The worship of Vedic deities were not common. The worship of kannagi was common.
We have already referred to the five Gods worshipped in the five different regions. In addition to these Gods, the Sangam Tamils worshipped their ancestors. The Sangam people had also worshipped the natural objects. For example, the Sun, Moon, Earth, rivers and mountains became their objects of worship. Neem tree was considered sacred. They erected memorial stones called as Nadukal, They were also known as Hero Stones or Veerakkal. Such stones were erected in memory of those who died in battles.
The Hero Stone was erected in memory of the bravery shown by the warrior in battle. Many hero stones with legends inscribed on them were found in different parts of Tamil Nadu. This kind of worshipping the deceased has a great antiquity. The influence of Buddhism, Jainism and Ajivikas (Aaseevagam) was paramount
Position of Women There is a plenty of information in the Sangam literature to trace the position of women during the Sangam age. Women poets like Avvaiyar, Nachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this period and contributed to Tamil literature. The courage of women was also appreciated in many poems. Karpu or Chaste life was considered the highest virtue of women. Love marriage was a common practice. Women were allowed to choose their life partners. However, the life of widows was miserable. The class of dancers was patronized by the kings and nobles.
Fine Arts The Sangam Tamils had also established their greatness in fine arts. They developed the concept of Muthamizh iyal, Isai and Naatakam. The Paanars or bards were experts in music. They moved from place to place, singing bards in praise of kings and local chieftains. Later, the Tamils developed musical notes or swarams. The musical tune was known as Pann. Several musical instruments were also used. Shells, drums, flute and lutes were famous instruments. Karikalan had been hailed as Ezhisai Vallavan. The art of dancing was encouraged during the Sangam period.
Attam and Koothu were performed during festivals. Tholkaappiyam refers to Naatakam or Drama. The art of painting was also known to the Sangam Tamils. They celebrated several festivals. Kaarthigai, Onam and Indra festival were some of them. The Indra festival had been celebrated annually at Puhar. The dance and music had its religious connotation from the earliest times.
Poetry, music and dancing were popular among the people of the Sangam age. Liberal donations were given to poets by the kings, chieftains and nobles. The royal courts were crowded with singing bards called Panar and Viraliyar. They were experts in folk songs and folk dances. The arts of music and dancing were highly developed. A variety of Yazhs and drums are referred to in the Sangam literature. Dancing was performed by Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the most popular entertainment of the people.
Economy of the Sangam Age Generally, the Tamil society had enjoyed an affluent economy during the Sangam Age. Agriculture, industry, trade and commerce made the Sangam Tamils almost self-sufficient. Exports were also made to the other parts of the world.
Agriculture was the chief occupation. Rice was the common crop. Ragi, sugarcane, cotton, pepper, ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and a variety of fruits were the other crops. Jack fruit and pepper were famous in the Chera country. Paddy was the chief crop in the Chola and Pandya country. The chief occupation of the people was agriculture. Paddy was the main crop. Millet, grams and sugarcane were also cultivated. Irrigation through rivers, tanks and wells was used for cultivation.
The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular The handicrafts of the Sangam period were popular. They include weaving, metal works and carpentry, ship building and making of ornaments using beads, stones and ivory. There was a great demand for these products, as the internal and external trade was at its peak during the Sangam period. Spinning and weaving of cotton and silk clothes attained a high quality. The poems mention the cotton clothes as thin as a cloud of steam or a slough of a snake. There was a great demand in the western world for the cotton clothes woven at Uraiyur.
Occupation Weaving and spinning were the most important crafts of the Sangam period. Uraiyur and Madurai were the main centers for the manufacture of cotton fabrics. The weavers produced and exported fine cotton clothes. The Sangam literature refers to clothes, which were thinner than steam. Silk clothes were also produced in the Tamil country. Other craftsmen like the carpenter, blacksmith, goldsmith and potter had practiced their respective occupations. Fishing and hunting had also remained as important occupation during this period.
Trade and Commerce In the beginning of the Sangam Age, the barter system of trade was followed. Generally, the people exchanged their commodities with their neighbors. For example, the people of Kurinji region exchanged honey with the people of Neydal region for getting fish and salt. Likewise, the Mullai people gave their milk products to Marudham people to get rice from them.
Later, when they began to use coins, trade picked up rapidly Later, when they began to use coins, trade picked up rapidly. Local markets came up and they were known as Angadis. Both Day Market (Nalangadi) and Evening Bazaar (Allangadi) existed in port towns. The Pattinappalai refers to their existence at Puhar. Goods from distant places were brought to these markets. The expansion of trade led to the growth of towns. Moreover, export of goods to other countries had increased.
Merchants carried the goods on the carts and on animal back from place to place. External trade was carried between South India and the Greek kingdoms. After the ascendancy of the Roman Empire, the Roman trade assumed importance. The port city of Puhar became an emporium of foreign trade, as big ships entered this port with precious goods. Other ports of commercial activity include Tondi, Musiri, Korkai, Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
The author of Periplus provides the most valuable information on foreign trade. Plenty of gold and silver coins issued by the Roman Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius and Nero were found in all parts of Tamil Nadu. They reveal the extent of the trade and the presence of Roman traders in the Tamil country. The main exports of the Sangam age were cotton fabrics, spices like pepper, ginger, cardamom, cinnamon and turmeric, ivory products, pearls and precious stones. Gold, horses and sweet wine were the chief imports.
Cultural Life Education and Literature The Sangam Tamils enjoyed a high degree of cultural life. Their interests in education, literature, music, dance, drama and festivals have been described in the Sangam literature. Education and Literature Education was common for all, men and women, rich and poor and for different communities. Parents attached importance to the education of their children. The Purananooru describes that it is the duty of the father to make his children learned. The bulk of the Sangamn literature written by about 500 poets indicates the importance given to education. The poets of the Sangam period played vital role in the social and culture life of the people.
Recreation The people of the Sangarn Age had spent their time in excellent ways of recreations. Poetry, music, dance and drama were significant. The Sangam poets made the kings as well as the people through rendering beautiful verses. The bards made merry in the king’s courts. The rulers and nobles patronized them with liberal donations. Hunting was another important recreation. The young and energetic took part in duals, while the old played indoor games like dice. Women and girl children had their own games to play and evinced much interest in swimming.
End of the Sangam Age Towards the end of the third century A.D., the Sangam period slowly witnessed its decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries. We have little information about the Kalabhra rule. Jainism, Buddhism and Aaseevagam became prominent during this period.