Chapter 10: Personality: Theory and Measurement

Learning Outcomes Describe the psychoanalytical perspective and how it contributed to the study of personality. Explain the trait perspective and the “Big Five” trait model.

Learning Outcomes Identify the contributions of learning theory to understanding personality. Describe the humanistic-existential perspective on personality.

Learning Outcomes Describe the sociocultural perspective on personality. Describe the different kinds of tests psychologists use to measure personality.

What is Personality? Personality consists of the reasonably stable patterns of emotions, motives, and behavior that distinguish one person from another personality – the reasonably stable patterns of emotions, motives, and behavior that distinguish one person from another

The Psychodynamic Perspective LO1 Describe the psychoanalytical perspective and how it contributed to the study of personality.

Psychodynamic Theory Sigmund Freud Personality characterized by conflict Conflict is first external, then internalized Our behavior is the result of these inner conflicts psychodynamic theory – Sigmund Freud’s perspective, which emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as forces that determine behavior

Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development Three levels of awareness Conscious, preconscious, unconscious Unconscious urges are kept below the surface by repression Psychoanalysis Form of therapy used to explore the unconscious mind

The Human Iceberg According to Freud Figure 10.1: The Human Iceberg According to Freud - According to psychodynamic theory, only the tip of human personality rises above the surface of the mind into conscious awareness. Material in the preconscious can become conscious if we direct our attention to it. Unconscious material tends to remain shrouded in mystery. Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych to access an interactive version of this figure.

Structure of Personality Three psychic structures of personality Id – pleasure principle Ego – reality principle Defense Mechanisms Superego – moral principle Identification id – the psychic structure, present at birth, that represents physiological drives and is fully unconscious ego – the second psychic structure to develop, characterized by self-awareness, planning, and delay of gratification superego – the third psychic structure, which functions as a moral guardian and sets forth high standards for behavior identification – in psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious adoption of another person’s behavior

Stages of Psychosexual Development Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital Fixations at any stage are expressed by characteristics of that stage Oral Fixation Anal Fixation psychosexual development - in psychodynamic theory, the process by which libidinal energy is expressed through different erogenous zones during different stages of development Oral Fixation – desires for oral activities (smoking, overeating, alcohol abuse, nail biting), clinging relationships Anal Fixation Anal retentive traits – Excessive use of self control Anal expulsive traits – Carelessness, messiness, sadism

Stages of Psychosexual Development Oral Stage Conflict centers on nature and extent of oral gratification Excessive or insufficient gratification leads to fixation Anal Stage Focuses on the control of elimination of waste Learn to delay gratification – self-control oral stage – the first stage of psychosexual development, during which gratification is hypothesized to be attained primarily through oral activities anal stage – the second stage of psychosexual development, when gratification is attained through anal activities

Stages of Psychosexual Development Phallic Stage Oedipus or Electra complex Resolved through identification with same sex parent Latency Sexual feelings remain unconscious Genital Stage Incest taboo phallic stage – the third stage of psychosexual development, characterized by a shift of libido to the phallic region (from the Greek phallos, referring to an image of the penis; however, Freud used the term phallic to refer both to boys and girls) Oedipus complex – a conflict of the phallic stage in which the boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival in love Electra complex – a conflict of the phallic stage in which the girl longs for her father and resents her mother latency – a phase of psychosexual development characterized by repression of sexual impulses genital stage – the mature stage of psychosexual development, characterized by preferred expression of libido through intercourse with an adult of the other gender

Neo-Freudians Carl Jung - Analytical Psychology Downplayed importance of sexual instinct Collective unconscious Archetypes analytical psychology – Jung’s psychodynamic theory, which emphasizes the collective unconscious and archetypes collective unconscious – Jung’s hypothesized store of vague memories that represent the history of humankind

Neo-Freudians Alfred Adler – Individual Psychology People are motivated by an inferiority complex Drive for superiority Creative self individual psychology - Adler’s psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes feelings of inferiority and the creative self inferiority complex – feelings of inferiority hypothesized by Adler to serve as a central motivating force creative self – according to Adler, the self-aware aspect of personality that strives to achieve its full potential

Neo-Freudians Karen Horney Argued girls do not feel inferior to boys Social relationships are more important than unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses

Neo-Freudians Erik Erikson – Psychosocial Development Eight stages named for traits that should develop at each stage First stage – trust versus mistrust Goal of adolescence is attainment of ego identity psychosocial development – Erikson’s theory of personality and development, which emphasizes social relationships and eight stages of growth ego identity – a firm sense of who one is and what one stands for

Evaluation of Psychodynamic Perspective Shift to examination of problems as having a psychological source Focused attention on childhood experiences No evidence for existence of psychic structures Problems with clinical method for gathering evidence

Truth or Fiction? Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood. Truth or Fiction? Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood. FICTION There is no adequate evidence that biting one’s nails in adulthood or smoking cigarettes signifies an oral fixation.

Truth or Fiction? Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood. FICTION! Truth or Fiction? Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood. FICTION There is no adequate evidence that biting one’s nails in adulthood or smoking cigarettes signifies an oral fixation.

The Trait Perspective LO2 Explain the trait perspective and the “Big Five” trait model.

What are Traits? Traits are reasonably stable elements of personality that are inferred from behavior trait – a relatively stable aspect of personality that is inferred from behavior and assumed to give rise to consistent behavior

History of the Trait Perspective Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 BCE) Personality depends on the balance of four fluids (humors) in the body Disease was reflected by imbalance and was restored through bloodletting and vomiting The four basic fluids: Choleric (yellow bile) associated with quick-tempered disposition; blood with a sanguine (warm, cheerful) disposition; phlegm with a sluggish, calm, cool disposition; and black bile with a melancholic (gloomy, pensive) temperament.

Truth or Fiction? Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression. Truth or Fiction? Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression. TRUE Methods such as blood-letting and vomiting were recommended to restore the balance of humors.

Truth or Fiction? Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression. TRUE! Truth or Fiction? Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression. TRUE Methods such as blood-letting and vomiting were recommended to restore the balance of humors. (Maher & Maher, 1994).

History of the Trait Perspective Charles Spearman – factor analysis Heritable traits embedded in nervous system Gordon Allport (1936) Catalogued 18,000 human traits

Hans Eysenck’s Trait Theory Focus on relationship between Introversion – Extraversion Stability – Instability (Neuroticism) introversion – a trait characterized by intense imagination and the tendency to inhibit impulses extroversion – a trait characterized by tendencies to be socially outgoing and to express feelings and impulses freely

Truth or Fiction? Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today. Truth or Fiction? Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today. TRUE It is true that some 2,500 years ago, Hippocrates, the Greek physician, devised a way of looking at personality that could be said to remain in use today.

Truth or Fiction? Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today. TRUE! Truth or Fiction? Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today. TRUE It is true that some 2,500 years ago, Hippocrates, the Greek physician, devised a way of looking at personality that could be said to remain in use today.

Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions and Hippocrates’ Personality Types Figure 10.2: Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions and Hippocrates’ Personality Types - Various personality traits shown in the outer ring fall within the two major dimensions of personality suggested by Hans Eysenck. The inner circle shows how Hippocrates’ four major personality types—choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, and melancholic—fit within Eysenck’s dimensions.

The “Big Five”: The Five-Factor Model Five basic personality factors extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness to experience Research has shown cross-cultural application and relationship to inborn temperament Popular means of developing personality “types”

The “Big Five”: The Five-Factor Model

Truth or Fiction? Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways. Truth or Fiction? Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways. FICTION There may be several basic personality traits, as suggested by trait theory.

Truth or Fiction? Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways. FICTION! Truth or Fiction? Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways. FICTION There may be several basic personality traits, as suggested by trait theory.

Biology and Traits Biological factors related to traits Temperament Heredity, Neurotransmitters Temperament Shyness and behavioral inhibition Antisocial personality disorder antisocial personality disorder – characterized by frequent conflict with society and lack of feelings of guilt or anxiety. Unlike shy children, those who may develop antisocial personality disorder show low responses to threats and stressors.

Evaluation of Trait Model Personality tests have been used to identify “types” related to certain occupations Trait theory has been more descriptive than explanatory

Positive Psychology and Trait Theory Character Strengths and Virtues Virtuous traits Wisdom and knowledge Courage Humanity Justice Temperance Transcendence

Learning-Theory Perspectives LO3 Identify the contributions of learning theory to understanding personality.

Behaviorism John B. Watson B.F. Skinner Criticism Focus on determinants of observable behavior, not unseen, undetectable, unconscious forces B.F. Skinner Emphasized the effects of reinforcements on behavior Criticism Ignored the role of choice and consciousness

Social Cognitive Theory Albert Bandura Focuses on learning by observation and cognitive processes of personal differences Person and Situational Variables social cognitive theory – a cognitively oriented learning theory in which observational learning and person variables such as values and expectancies play major roles in individual differences Person variables – variables within people, knowledge and skills, ways of interpreting experiences, expectancies, emotions, self-regulatory systems and plans Situational variables – rewards and punishments

Person Variables and Situational Variables in Social-Cognitive Theory Figure 10.3: Person Variables and Situational Variables in Social-Cognitive Theory - According to social-cognitive theory, person variables and situational variables interact to influence behavior.

Social Cognitive Theory Predicting behavior is based on Expectancies about the outcome, and Subjective values perceived about those outcomes Self-efficacy expectations Beliefs we can accomplish certain things Positive self-efficacy = High self esteem

Observational Learning Modeling or cognitive learning Acquiring knowledge by observing others

Biology, Social Cognition, and Gender-Typing Evolution – natural selection Biology – prenatal levels of sex hormones Social cognition – observation Gender Schema Theory gender schema gender typing – the process by which males and female come to display behavior patterns consistent with stereotypical masculine and feminine gender roles. gender-schema theory – a cognitive view of gender-typing that proposes that once girls and boys become aware of their anatomic sex, they begin to blend their self-expectations and self-esteem with the ways in which they fit the gender roles prescribed in a given culture

Evaluation of Learning Perspective Emphasize observable behaviors which can be measured Emphasize environmental conditions Avoid internal variables Social cognitive theory does not explain self-awareness and genetic variation

The Humanistic-Existential Perspective LO4 Describe the humanistic-existential perspective on personality.

What is Humanism? Humanism argues people are capable of Existentialism free choice self-fulfillment ethical behavior Existentialism humanism – the view that people are capable of free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior existentialism - the view that people are completely free and responsible for their own behavior.

Abraham Maslow and the Challenge of Self-Actualization Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Conscious need for self-actualization self-actualization – in humanistic theory, the innate tendency to strive to realize one’s potential

Carl Rogers’ Self Theory Your ongoing sense of who and what you are Your sense of how and why you react to the environment How you choose to act on the environment Self Theory Focuses on nature of self and conditions that allow the self to develop freely .

Self-Concept and Frames of Reference Our impressions of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy Frames of Reference The way in which we look at ourselves and the world

Self-Esteem and Positive Regard Unconditional positive regard Accept child as having intrinsic merit regardless of present behavior Conditional positive regard Accept child only when they behave in the desired manner Conditions of Worth Develop in response to conditional positive regard unconditional positive regard – a persistent expression of esteem for the value of a person, but not necessarily an unqualified acceptance of all of the person’s behaviors conditional positive regard – judgment of another person’s value on the basis of the acceptability of that person’s behaviors conditions of worth – standards by which the value of a person is judged

Evaluation of Humanistic-Existential Perspective Focus on conscious experience Private and subjective Does not address development of traits and personality types

The Sociocultural Perspective LO5 Describe the sociocultural perspective on personality.

Individualism Versus Collectivism Individualist Define self in terms of personal identities Give priority to personal goals Collectivist Define self in terms of groups to which you belong Give priority to the group’s goals sociocultural perspective – the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation, behavior, and mental processes individualist – a person who defines herself or himself in terms of personal traits and gives priority to her or his own goals collectivist – a person who defines herself or himself in terms of relationships to other people and groups and gives priority to group goals

The Self in Relation to Others from the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives Figure 10.4: The Self in Relation to Others from the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives - To an individualist, the self is separate from other people (part A). To a collectivist, the self is complete only in terms of relationships to other people (part B). (Based on Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

Truth or Fiction? The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country. Truth or Fiction? The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country. FICTION Research evidence suggests that people who do not surrender their traditional backgrounds have relatively higher self-esteem than those who do.

Truth or Fiction? The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country. FICTION! Truth or Fiction? The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country. FICTION Research evidence suggests that people who do not surrender their traditional backgrounds have relatively higher self-esteem than those who do.

Acculturation, Adjustment and Self-Esteem Patterns of Adjustment Complete assimilation, Bicultural, Complete separation Highest self-esteem in those who do not surrender their culture acculturation – the process of adaptation in which immigrants and native groups identify with a new, dominant culture by learning about that culture and making behavioral and attitudinal changes

Evaluation of Sociocultural Perspective Considers roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation Enhances our sensitivity to cultural differences and expectations

Measurement of Personality LO6 Describe the different kinds of tests psychologists use to measure personality.

Characteristics of Scientific Personality Tests Validity Extent to which test measures what it is supposed to measure Reliability Stability of one’s test results from one testing to another Standardization validity – in psychological testing, the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure reliability – in psychological testing, the consistency or stability of test scores from one testing to another standardization – in psychological testing, the process by which one obtains and organizes test scores from various population groups, so that the results of a person’s completing a test can be compared to those of others of his or her gender, in his or her age group, and so on

Use of Personality Tests Behavior-rating scales Classrooms or mental hospitals Decision making Occupations, School, Medications Aptitude and interest scales

Truth or Fiction? Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test. Truth or Fiction? Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test. FICTION Validity scales suggest whether answers actually represent the person’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. However, psychologists cannot guarantee that they can detect deception on a personality test.

Truth or Fiction? Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test. FICTION! Truth or Fiction? Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test. FICTION Validity scales suggest whether answers actually represent the person’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. However, psychologists cannot guarantee that they can detect deception on a personality test.

Objective Tests Respondents are presented with standardized group of test items in form of questionnaire Forced-choice format Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Designed to diagnose psychological disorders objective tests – tests whose items must be answered in a specified, limited manner; tests whose items have concrete answers that are considered correct

Truth or Fiction? There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them. Truth or Fiction? There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them. TRUE The best known of these is the Rorschach inkblot test, named after its originator, Hermann Rorschach.

Truth or Fiction? There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them. TRUE! Truth or Fiction? There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them. TRUE The best known of these is the Rorschach inkblot test, named after its originator, Hermann Rorschach.

Projective Tests No clear, specified answers Rorschach Inkblot Test Response that reflects the shape of the inkblot Sign of adequate reality testing Response that integrates several features of the blot Sign of high intellectual functioning projective test – a psychological test that presents ambiguous stimuli onto which the test taker projects his or her own personality in making a response

An Inkblot Test Figure 10.5: An Inkblot Test – Of all the inkblot tests, the Rorschach is the most widely used projective personality test. What does this inkblot look like to you? What could it be?

Projective Tests Thematic Apperception Test Individuals are asked to make up stories about drawings that are open to various interpretations Widely used in research on motivation and to determine attitudes toward others