The Processes of Memory Memory is the input, storage, and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced. Three steps: Encoding Storage Retrieval The Processes of Memory Section 1

Three Stages of Memory The three types of memory: Sensory memory prevents you from being overwhelmed gives you some decision time allows for continuity and stability in your world Stages of Memory Section 1

Three Stages of Memory (cont.) Short-term memory Maintenance rehearsal Chunking Long-term memory Using Short-Term Memory Spot the Real Penny Section 1

Three Stages of Memory (cont.) Four types of long-term memory: Semantic memory Episodic memory Declarative memory Procedural memory Three Systems of Memory Section 1

Memory and the Brain Two theories regarding the physiological changes that occur when we learn something: A change in the neuronal structure of nerves occurs. Learning is based on molecular or chemical changes in the brain. Section 1

Recall Recall involves a person’s knowledge, attitudes, and expectations. Recall is influenced by reconstructive processes. Adding addition information not in memory is called confabulation. Section 2

Recall (cont.) Our memories may be reconstructed in terms of schemas Eidetic memory State-dependent learning occurs when you recall information easily when you are in the same physiological or emotional state or setting you were when you originally encoded the information. Elizabeth Loftus Section 2

Relearning Relearning is a measure of both declarative and procedural memory. Section 2

Forgetting When information that once entered long-term memory is unable to be retrieved, it is said to be forgotten. Forgetting may involve: Decay Interference Repression Section 2

Forgetting (cont.) Amnesia—a loss of memory that may occur after a blow to the head, brain damage, drug use, or severe psychological stress. Infant amnesia—the relative lack of early declarative memories. Section 2

Forgetting (cont.) Theories for why we do not remember being young: Freud thought that memories are repressed because of the emotional traumas of infancy. Others believe that because infants do not yet understand language, their memories are nonverbal, whereas later memories are verbal. Section 2

Forgetting (cont.) Others claim that the hippocampus may not be mature enough in infancy to spark memories. Or that infants have not yet developed a sense of self to experience memories. Section 2

Improving Memory Techniques for improving memory are based on efficient organization of the things you learn and on chunking information into easily handled packages. Elaborative rehearsal Section 2

Improving Memory (cont.) Ways to protect a memory from interference: Overlearn it. Avoid studying similar material together. Use distributed practice, or study a little at a time. Section 2

Improving Memory (cont.) Mnemonic devices Examples: The Method of Loci “Thirty days has September” “Every Good Boy Does Fine” Mental pictures Section 2

Stages of Memory Psychologists often compare human memory to a computer; however, unlike a computer, people can never fill their long-term memories so full that there is no room left for storage. Figure 1

Spot the Real Penny Which is the genuine penny among the fakes? Even though you live in the United States and probably see hundreds of pennies a week, it is difficult to identify the real one. Mere reception, such as seeing something over and over again, does not guarantee a strong memory. Figure 2

Using Short-Term Memory Glance quickly at the left figure in this pair, then look away. How many dots did you see? Now do the same with the right figure. You were probably surer and more accurate in your answer for the right figure. Figure 3

Three Systems of Memory The moment you pay attention to information in sensory memory, that information enters short-term memory. Then that information remains in short-term memory for a few seconds. If you rehearse that information, it stays; if you do not, it disappears. Figure 4

Memory Centers in the Brain Researchers have identified the parts of the brain that are involved in memory. Figure 5

The Processes of Memory Memory involves three processes. Figure 7

Elizabeth Loftus 1944– “One of the things that we know about memory for very upsetting experiences, traumatic experiences, is that the memory does not work like a videotape recorder.” Profile

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memory: the input, storage, and retrieval of what has been learned or experienced Vocab1

encoding: the transforming of information so the nervous system can process it Vocab2

storage: the process by which information is maintained over a period of time Vocab3

retrieval: the process of obtaining information that has been stored in memory Vocab4

sensory memory: very brief memory storage immediately following initial stimulation of a receptor Vocab5

short-term memory: memory that is limited in capacity to about seven items and in duration by the subject’s active rehearsal Vocab6

maintenance rehearsal: a system for remembering that involves repeating information to one-self without attempting to find meaning in it Vocab7

chunking: the process of grouping items to make them easier to remember Vocab8

semantic memory: knowledge of language, including its rules, words, and meanings Vocab9

episodic memory: chronological retention of the events of one’s life Vocab10

declarative memory: stored knowledge of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection Vocab11

procedural memory: permanent storage of learned skills that does not require conscious recollection Vocab12

recognition: memory retrieval in which a person identifies an object, idea, or situation as one he or she has or has not experienced before Vocab13

recall: memory retrieval in which a person reconstructs previously learned material Vocab14

reconstructive processes: the alteration of a recalled memory that may be simplified, enriched, or distorted, depending on an individual’s experiences, attitudes, or inferences Vocab15

confabulation: the act of filling in memory gaps Vocab16

schemas: conceptual frameworks a person uses to make sense of the world Vocab17

eidetic memory: the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure Vocab18

decay: fading away of memory over time Vocab19

interference: blockage of a memory by previous or subsequent memories or loss of a retrieval cue Vocab20

elaborative rehearsal: the linking of new information to material that is already known Vocab21

mnemonic devices: techniques for using associations to memorize and retrieve information Vocab22

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