Cell Growth & Division Chapter 10

The Cell Cycle Eukaryotic cells undergo a predictable cycle of growth and division This Cell Cycle has 4 main stages G1 – growth S – synthesis of DNA G2 – more growth M – mitosis

The Cell Cycle G1 – the cell carries out its normal functions - GROWTH The cell will also increase in size and organelles increase in number Cells must pass a critical checkpoint in order to proceed to the next stage of the cell cycle

The Cell Cycle S – synthesis of DNA The cell will make a copy of its DNA The DNA is arranged loosely inside the nucleus during the S stage At the end there are 2 exact copies of the DNA

The Cell Cycle G2 – additional growth occurs Normal functions continue Preparing for the M stage (mitosis) of the cycle Must pass a critical checkpoint, just like in G1, in order to proceed to Mitosis

The Cell Cycle M – mitosis – cell division The nucleus divides in mitosis The nuclear membrane dissolves DNA condenses and separates Two new nuclei form Cytokinesis – the process that divides the cytoplasm into 2 new cells

The Cell Cycle Cells all go through the cell cycle, but at different rates The S, G2 and M stages in a human take about 12 hours. The G1 stage varies widely with the type of cell Skin cells live about 2 weeks

The Cell Cycle Red blood cells live about 4 months Liver cells live about 300-500 days Intestine (internal lining) cells live about 4-5 days Intestine (muscle & other tissue) cells live about 16 years!

The Cell Cycle Some cells do not divide or divide very rarely (neurons, for example) These cells enter a stage called G0. Cells in G0 continue to carry out normal functions, but do not proceed to the S, G2 and M stages

The Cell Cycle Cell size is limited – they cannot be too small (the organelles won’t fit!) or too big (the cell would be inefficient) The upper limit on the size of a cell is because of the cell “surface area to volume ratio”

The Cell Cycle As a cell grows, its volume and surface area both increase However, the volume increases faster than the surface area The surface (cell membrane) of the cell is very important in getting materials in & out, so…

The Cell Cycle If a cell has a large volume & not enough surface area, the cell could not get enough needed materials to the entire cell quickly enough On page 280 in the textbook, there is a similar diagram

The Cell Cycle Some cells must be large – for instance a neuron that needs to reach from your brain to your leg This cell is not shaped like a sphere or cube, but instead is long & thin, making the surface area increase but with very little volume increase

The Cell Cycle Cells have to regulate the amount of growth that occurs & the size of the cell, before it divides Cells that are more than twice as large as the original will produce daughter cells that are too big Cells less than double the size will produce daughter cells that are too small

The Cell Cycle Let’s take an in-detailed look at the last parts of the cell cycle – Mitosis & Cytokinesis The cell must make sure that each new daughter cell has the exact same DNA as the other, if not, things could be disastrous!

Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction Some organisms reproduce by mitosis (asexual reproduction) and some reproduce sexually (a process called meiosis – we will talk about that later) Asexual reproduction results in genetically identical offspring

Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction Organisms that reproduce sexually get some of their genetic material from each parent – offspring are unique Yeast is an example of an organism that does BOTH types of reproduction

Each human body cell has 46 chromosomes Mitosis Each human body cell has 46 chromosomes A chromosome is a condensed strand of DNA that contains many genes along with other regulatory info Chromosomes are tightly coiled DNA, wrapped around proteins

Histones are proteins that DNA wraps around at regular intervals Mitosis Histones are proteins that DNA wraps around at regular intervals

One side of the “X” is called a chromatid. Mitosis Chromatin is the loose form of DNA (not as coiled as chromosomes, think spaghetti) Chromosomes look like an “X” in which the left & right sides are identical One side of the “X” is called a chromatid.

Mitosis

Mitosis Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere The end of the DNA molecules form telomeres which are repeating nucleotides & do NOT code for genes A portion of each chromosome is lost each time a cell divides, & it must be from the telomeres!

Interphase – G1, S & G2 stages The Phases of Mitosis Interphase – G1, S & G2 stages Prophase – 1st official phase of mitosis, chromatin condenses, nuclear envelope breaks down, centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell, spindle fibers (microtubules) grow out of the centrioles

The Phases of Mitosis Prophase Pictures

Metaphase – the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell The Phases of Mitosis Metaphase – the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell Spindle fibers attach to each chromosome on either side

The Phases of Mitosis Anaphase – The chromatids begin to separate to opposite sides of the cell Cytokinesis will usually begin in late anaphase Anaphase “bananaphase”

Telophase – the last phase of mitosis The Phases of Mitosis Telophase – the last phase of mitosis 2 new nuclear membranes start to form Chromosomes begin to uncoil Spindle fibers fall apart The new cells start to pinch off

The Phases of Mitosis Photo of Telophase

Onion Root Tip Mitosis

Onion Root Tip Mitosis

Onion Root Tip Mitosis

Onion Root Tip Mitosis

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Both internal & external factors regulate the cell cycle External factors come from outside the cell – messages from OTHER nearby cells or even from distant cells in the organism’s body Internal factors come from inside the cell & include many different molecules found in the cytoplasm

Regulation of the Cell Cycle External factors can be physical or chemical signals. A physical signal could be cell-to-cell contact If a cell is normal, once it touches another cell, it will stop growing/dividing

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Growth factors are chemical signals that stimulate cell growth Some hormones may also stimulate cell growth External factors stimulate internal factors Kinases and cyclins are 2 internal factors

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Kinases are enzymes that are activated by cyclins to help regulate the cell cycle and move from stage to stage

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Apoptosis: programmed cell death Some cells are supposed to die at certain times Genes are activated that produce self-destructive enzymes

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Apoptosis occurs in developing babies between the fingers before birth In the womb, babies have webbed fingers At birth, babies do not have webbed fingers because those cells die

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Sometimes, cells grow uncontrollably This is commonly referred to as cancer Cancer cells do not stop growing & dividing when they touch other cells, resulting in tumors

Regulation of the Cell Cycle If a tumor is benign, the cells stay clustered together If a tumor is malignant, the cells break off (metastasize) and spread to other parts of the body Cancer cells take nutrients away from healthy cells

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Cancer cells also do not perform regular cell functions Cancer tumors can also put pressure on internal organs and cause them to not work properly Carcinogens are cancer causing agents that can be environmental or even viruses

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Cancer treatment often involves radiation therapy or chemotherapy Radiation therapy uses radiation to shrink and kill cancer cells Chemotherapy uses chemicals to kill the cells

Regulation of the Cell Cycle Cancer treatments can also cause unwanted side effects because they kill healthy cells as well as the cancer cells Radiation is localized (one spot) & chemotherapy is systemic (all over the body)

Binary Fission Binary fission is the way in which most prokaryotes (bacteria) reproduce The function of binary fission is similar to mitosis – make 2 identical daughter cells

Binary Fission There are also some key differences Prokaryotes have no nucleus and their DNA is in the form of a circular chromosome Once the DNA copies itself, each copy is attached to the cell membrane

Binary Fission The cell will grow and get longer Then the cell membrane pinches off to form the 2 daughter cells The original bacterium no longer exists and each new cell is its own organism

Reproduction Through Mitosis Some eukaryotes reproduce using mitosis Yeasts and hydra produce offspring via a process called budding – the original organism still exists, but the new organism is identical to the parent