CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Psychoanalytic theories identify and clarify the major themes of social and personality development during adolescence, such as the teenager’s acquiring a sense of who she is as an individual Cultural perspectives derived from other disciplines can reveal the important role culture plays in the adolescent’s transition from child to adult Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives Freud Post-pubertal years are the last stage of personality development Genital stage: the period during which people reach psychosexual maturity Erikson During this period the adolescent’s mind is in a kind of moratorium between childhood and adulthood Identity versus role confusion: the stage during which adolescents attain a sense of who they are Identity crisis: the psychological state of emotional turmoil that arises when an adolescent’s sense of self becomes “unglued” so that a new, more mature sense of self can be achieved Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

B. Marcia's Theory of Identity Achievement CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE B. Marcia's Theory of Identity Achievement James Marcia Adolescent identity formation has two key parts: a crisis and a commitment Four different identity statuses are possible: Identity achievement: The person has been through a crisis and has reached a commitment to ideological, occupational, or other goals Moratorium: the identity status of a person who is in a crisis but who has made no commitment Foreclosure: the identity status of a person who has made a commitment without having gone through a crisis; the person has simply accepted a parentally or culturally defined commitment Identity diffusion: the identity status of a person who is not in the midst of a crisis and who has made no commitment What makes the formation of an identity during adolescence special is that all the essential elements for the formation of identity are present for the first time in a person’s life. The person now possesses a sufficient level of physical, sexual, cognitive and moral maturity. In conjunction with this, society encourages the individual to take on adult roles, such as worker, parent and citizen (Marcia, 2002). Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

II. SELF-CONCEPT AND PERSONALITY CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE II. SELF-CONCEPT AND PERSONALITY Thinking becomes more abstract in adolescence, thus teenagers’ self-concepts are a lot more complex than those of younger children Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE A. Self-Understanding Self-definitions becoming more and more abstract Physical traits become less dominant in late adolescence, as most teenagers think of themselves in terms of enduring traits, beliefs, personal philosophy, and moral standards The adolescent's self-concept becomes more differentiated as teenagers come to see themselves somewhat differently in each of several roles: as a student, with friends, with parents, and in romantic relationships Once self-concepts are formed, they begin to influence adolescents’ behaviour, in positive and negative ways Strong self-concept is important to the development of good mental and physical health. Weak self-concept during adolescence puts girls at risk for depression, poor self-perceived health and obesity, and boys at risk for obesity and inactivity in young adulthood. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

How Children and Adolescents Define Themselves CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE How Children and Adolescents Define Themselves Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE B. Gender Roles Gender-role identity: the gender-related aspects of the psychological self The masculine and feminine types are the traditional categories; a person in either of these categories sees himself or herself as high in one and low in the other Androgynous individuals see themselves as having both masculine and feminine traits Undifferentiated individuals describe themselves as lacking both Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Interaction of Dimensions of Masculinity & Femininity to Produce 4 Types of Gender-Roles Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE C. Self-Esteem Either an androgynous or a masculine gender-role identity is associated with higher self-esteem among both boys and girls Cross-cultural research suggests that adoption of an androgynous or masculine orientation by a girl can lead to lower self-esteem (gender roles and gender-role identity are very strongly tied to culture) The overall trend is a rise in self-esteem through the years of adolescence Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE D. Ethnic Identity Minority teenagers, especially recent immigrant youth, face the task of creating two identities in adolescence: Like other teens, they must develop a sense of individual identity that they believe sets them apart from others In addition, they must develop an ethnic identity that includes self-identification as a member of their specific group, commitment to that group and its values and attitudes, and some attitudes (positive or negative) about the group to which they belong The process of developing an ethnic identity can be at variance with a social environment that is dominated by the concerns of the majority Ethnic identity: a sense of belonging to an ethnic group (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Ethnic Identity (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Ethnic Identity (continued) Ethnic identity tends to strengthen with age and progresses through phases younger children tend not to pay attention to or haven’t shown much interest in their ethnic identity Next, they may start to become acutely aware of the gulf that lies between the values and attitudes that exist within the larger culture and their own culture Finally they may develop a secure sense of membership and pride in and commitment to their own ethnic group Bi-cultural identity: personal identification and satisfaction with more than one culture adolescents who form a combined identity based on strong identification and participation in both their own ethnic culture and the larger culture have the highest self-esteem and the best outcomes Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

E. Locus of Control & Other Traits CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE E. Locus of Control & Other Traits Locus of control External locus: attributes the causes of experiences to factors outside himself Associated with procrastination and poor academic performance Often accompanies low self-esteem, introversion, and neuroticism Uses avoidant coping when faced with problems Internal locus: believes in personal variables, such as ability and effort, as being responsible for outcomes Completes tasks and succeeds in school Optimistic outlook When external locus is combined with low self-esteem, introversion, and neuroticism, teens (and adults) have many poor social and emotional outcomes Locus of control: a set of beliefs about the causes of events Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE III. MORAL DEVELOPMENT The theorist whose work has had the most powerful impact has been psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg Theories of moral reasoning have been important in explanations of adolescent antisocial behaviour Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

A. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE A. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning Kohlberg pioneered the practice of assessing moral reasoning by presenting a subject with a series of dilemmas in story form, each highlighting a specific moral issue, such as the value of human life After reading the story, the person is asked a series of questions involving his moral judgments Kohlberg concluded that there were three main levels of moral reasoning, with two sub-stages within each level What determines the stage or level of a person's moral judgment is not the specific moral choice, but the form of reasoning used to justify that choice Refer to Table 12.1 (next slide) page 347 (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) Age and Moral Reasoning The stages are loosely correlated with age Children usually reason in the first 2 stages Stages 2 and 3 are commonly seen in adolescence Refer to Table 12.2 Page 348 Refer to Figure 12.5 (slide 20) Page 348 (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) Preconventional Reasoning Judgments are based on sources of authority — usually parents Stage 1 – punishment and obedience orientation Stage 2 – individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange Refer to Table 12.2 Page 348 Refer to Figure 12.5 (slide 20) Page 348 (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc. 19

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) Conventional Reasoning Judgments are based on rules or norms of a group to which the individual belongs Stage 3 – Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity (the good boy/nice girl stage) Stage 4 – Social system and conscience (law and order orientation) (continued) Refer to Figure 12.5 (next slide) Page 348 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued) Postconventional Reasoning Judgments are based on emergence of a personal authority Stage 5 – Social contract orientation Stage 6 – The universal ethical principles orientation Refer to Figure 12.5 (next slide) Page 348 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc. 21

Percentage of Reasoning Types by Age CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Percentage of Reasoning Types by Age Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

B. Causes and Consequences of Moral Development CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE B. Causes and Consequences of Moral Development Children must have a firm grasp of concrete operational thinking before they can develop or use conventional moral reasoning Formal operations appear to be necessary for advancement to the postconventional level The decline of egocentrism is the cognitive-developmental variable that matters most in moral reasoning Role-taking: the ability to look at a situation from another person’s perspective Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

C. Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE C. Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory Culture and Moral Reasoning Kohlberg’s approach is too narrow to be considered universal Non-Western cultures do not fit well with Kohlberg’s approach Justice is an important moral concept around the world Justice does not supersede all other moral considerations in non-Western cultures (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued) Moral Reasoning and Emotions Nancy Eisenberg Empathy – the ability to identify with others’ emotions is both a cause and consequence of moral development There are age-related and individual differences in ability to regulate emotions that should be considered Inability to control emotions triggers antisocial behaviours Carol Gilligan An ethic based on caring is as important as ideas about justice Notes that there are sex differences in moral reasoning (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued) Moral Reasoning and Behaviour Theories do not predict the differences between moral reasoning and moral behaviour Neither adolescents nor adults reason the same way in every situation Situational factors may determine actual behaviour Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

D. Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE D. Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour Criminality: antisocial behaviour that includes law-breaking Law breakers are distinguished from those who participate in other antisocial behaviours Canada’s Youth Criminal Justice Act avoids labelling youth as criminals and focuses on the person’s actions that are malleable to change with rehabilitation and reintegration into society Youth who commit offences appear to be behind their peers in moral reasoning because of deficits in role-taking skills (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued) Subvarieties of youth who commit offences: Childhood-onset Problems are more serious and more likely to persist into adulthood Temperament and personality play a role Parents who fail at early attempts to control bad behaviour may worsen the behaviours Seriously aggressive children can only find support with similar peers As adolescents, they may exhibit serious disturbances in thinking They likely display an array of other behavioural problems (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued) Subvarieties of youth who commit offences: 2. Adolescent-onset: Problems are typically milder and more transitory, apparently more a reflection of peer-group processes or a testing of the limits of authority than a deeply ingrained behaviour problem Criminal behaviour is strongly affected by their peers, and changes with the group Parents who do not monitor sufficiently contribute to criminality Friendships are not supportive or intimate Parental monitoring and support can prevent criminality even if the youth’s friends engage in criminal behaviour Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Development in the Real World: Youth Criminal Justice CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Development in the Real World: Youth Criminal Justice Since 1991 overall youth crime rate in Canada fell steadily, levelled off in 2000 and rebounded slightly in 2003 The peak age for crime rate is 15 for females and 17 for males Males have a higher crime rate at every age Youth are more likely to be victims of crimes committed by other youth Females are more likely to be victims of violent crime than males Two socializing factors that predict youth crime rates are peer influences and parenting style Canada’s new Youth Criminal Justice Act has three main objectives: Prevent crime Rehabilitate and reintegrate offenders into society Ensure meaningful consequences for offences committed by young people Refer to “Development in the Real World” page 354 Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

IV. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE IV. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS Adolescents’ ideas about other people and their understanding of social situations are more complex than those of children These advances in interpersonal understanding lead to changes in family and peer relationships Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

A. Relationships with Parents CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE A. Relationships with Parents An increase in conflict in the great majority of families with teenagers does not necessarily signify a major disruption in the quality of the parent-child relationship Teenagers' underlying emotional attachment to their parents remain strong on average A teenager's sense of well-being or happiness is more strongly correlated with the quality of her attachment to her parents than with the quality of her relationships with peers (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Relationships with Parents (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Relationships with Parents (continued) Parenting Styles Authoritative parenting style is consistently associated with more positive outcomes Parental involvement in education and extracurricular activities is important for teenagers Family Structure Adolescents in households including a step-parent are, on average, somewhat less well-adjusted than those who live with two biological parents Adolescent girls show more distress when parents divorce than boys show Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

B. Relationships with Peers CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE B. Relationships with Peers Friendships Shared activities and interests continue to be important elements in the selection of friends in adolescence A similarity of psychological characteristics and attitudes takes on new significance Teens' friendships are increasingly intimate, in the sense that adolescent friends share more and more of their inner feelings and secrets and are more knowledgeable about each other's feelings (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

B. Relationships with Peers (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE B. Relationships with Peers (continued) Friendships Loyalty and faithfulness become more valued characteristics of friendship Adolescent friendships are more stable than those of younger children Teens often choose friends who are committed to the same activities they are—e.g. computer and video games (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc. 35

Relationships with Peers (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Relationships with Peers (continued) Peer groups: Peer groups become relatively stable in adolescence If the discrepancy between their own ideas and those of their friends becomes too great, teens are more likely to switch to a more compatible group of friends When explicit peer pressure is exerted, it is likely to be pressure toward positive activities, such as school involvement, and away from misconduct Peer influence is neither all-powerful, nor uniformly negative (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Relationships with Peers (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Relationships with Peers (continued) Changes in Peer Group Structure Clique: four to six young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another Crowd: a combination of cliques, which includes both males and females Crowds are organized into a fairly clear, widely understood pecking order By late adolescence, social groups become mixed in gender, often composed of groups of dating couples Mutual friendships and dating pairs become more central to social interactions in later adolescence than are cliques or crowds (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Research Report: The Social Aspects of Electronic Communication CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Research Report: The Social Aspects of Electronic Communication Canada’s youth are the first generation to be raised on cable and satellite television, cell phones with video and mobile Internet communication – instantaneous access to information Cell phones afford teens more independence while providing increased reassurance to parents about their child’s safety and whereabouts Most home computers were purchased by parents to help teens keep up with their peers Increasingly, students prefer the internet to library books to gather information (62% of grade 4 students, >90% of grade 9 students) Youth show significant use of the internet for social purposes with this use increasing with age Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Relationships with Peers (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Relationships with Peers (continued) Romantic Relationships: Most teens display a gradual progression from same-sex friendships to heterosexual relationships The actual progression toward romantic relationships happens faster for girls Skills gained in relating to opposite-sex peers and in mixed-gender groups prepare teens for heterosexual romantic relationships Social competence in a variety of relationships predicts the ease of the progression to romantic relationships Girls seem to want more psychological intimacy from these early relationships than their partners do (continued) Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.

Relationships with Peers (continued) CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE Relationships with Peers (continued) Romantic Relationships (continued): Homosexual teenagers today are more comfortable about revealing their sexual orientation to their parents and to their peers than was true in past cohorts Homosexual teenagers become aware of same-sex attraction at around age 11 or 12, which is roughly the same time when heterosexual peers begin to notice their attraction to the opposite sex Many homosexual teens go through a period of sexual discovery that begins with experimentation with heterosexual relationships By age 15 or so, most have classified themselves as primarily heterosexual or committed to a gay, lesbian, or bisexual orientation Copyright © 2012 Pearson Canada Inc.